Soil erosion on alfisols in Western Nigeria: I. Effects of slope, crop rotation and residue management

doi:10.1016/0016-7061(76)90001-X

Geoderma

Volume 16, Issue 5, December 1976, Pages 363-375

https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(76)90001-X Get rights and content

Abstract

The effect of slope, crop rotation and residue management on runoff and soil loss was investigated using field runoff plots of 25 m × 4 m on natural slopes of 1, 5, 10 and 15% on an Alfisol on the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) research site near Ibadan, Nigeria. The soil and crop management treatments consisted of conventionnally plowed bare fallow, maize-maize (conventionally plowed and mulched), maize-maize (conventionally plowed), maize-cowpeas (zero-tillage), and cowpeas-maize (conventionally plowed). The effect of two contour lengths of 12.5 and 37.5 m was also investigated for the maize-cowpeas rotation.

Soil erosion under slopes of 5, 10 and 15% is severe for these soils and if not controlled can limit crop growth.

Mulching and no-till treatments had negligible runoff and soil loss. During 1973 the annual runoff losses from the 15% slope were 36, 2 and 2% of the total annual rainfall for the bare-fallow, mulched and no-till treatments, respectively. Annual soil losses during 1973 from the 15% slope were 230 t/ha from bare-fallow, 0.0 t/ha from maize-maize (mulched), 41 t/ha from maize-maize (conventional plowing), 0.1 t/ha from maize-cowpeas (no-till) and 43 t/ha from cowpeas-maize (plowed). Significant soil erosion was associated with only a few extremely intense storms. The soil loss during a single rainstorm increased exponentially with an increase in slope gradient. There was no definite relationship between contour length and runoff or soil loss.

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However, Barrow (1991) estimate is derived from Lal et al. (1989; Table III) using a synthesis of research from 24 countries that includes the following disclaimer: “The data used in this table comes from a wide range of sources and is derived through a wide range of sampling methodologies; it is therefore not standardized and serves as only a general indication” (Table, 10.6; Barrow, 1991). While this synthesis of research is useful and informative, the soil erosion rates found in Table, III of Lal et al. (1989) are sourced from eight different documents (Barber 1983; Fournier 1967; Humphreys 1984; Lal 1976a, 1976b; Ngatunga et al., 1984; Roose 1977; World Resources Institute 1986) which are mostly inaccessible, and the few that are available were based on small plot-based studies (e.g., Tanzania; Ngatunga et al., 1984). Lal et al. (1989) warn that “the data obtained from small plots are often not comparable … misinterpretation and erroneous conclusions are major worries when using such data” (p. 58).
The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) has been the de-facto standard for soil erosion management studies since its seminal publication in the 1970's. Widespread use of the model is due, in part, to its simple empirical modelling structure and parsimonious parameterization; however, these benefits have also led to criticism of its relevance as a tool for estimating soil erosion. While the USLE has a strong empirical basis, it is regularly used beyond its intended design space, i.e., predicting soil loss from planar hillslopes, to predict distributed soil erosion rates at large spatial extents, which introduces uncertainty in model outcomes. In this paper, we use a case study for up-scaling the USLE to a large spatial extent to assess the variability in model outcomes from different model user's design choices. Our analysis demonstrates that a standardized and accredited methodology for up-scaling the USLE is needed to reduce uncertainty in model outcomes.
Variable scale effects on hillslope soil erosion during rainfall-runoff processes
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Understanding the influence of scale on soil erosion processes is an important, crosscutting issue in hydrological, geomorphological, and ecological sciences (Lal, 1984; Cammeraat, 2002; Yair and Raz-Yassif, 2004; Newman et al., 2006; Polyakov and Lal, 2008; Bagarello and Ferro, 2010; Xing et al., 2016; Sidle et al., 2017; Poesen, 2018; Wu et al., 2019). In particular, widely applied soil erosion models, e.g., the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), use the scaling law of erosion to predict soil loss, geomorphic evolution, which allows formulating soil conservation strategies in plots of different sizes (Lal, 1976; Wischmeier and Smith, 1978; Renard et al., 1991; Heung et al., 2013; Fernández and Vega,2016; Karamesouti et al., 2016; Di Stefano et al., 2017b; Zhang et al., 2017; Bagarello et al., 2018a; Zerihun et al., 2018). Moreover, the spatial variability in soil loss due to the effect of scale is critical for understanding ecosystem functions and degradation processes in water-restricted environments, where ecological and hydrological processes are tightly coupled (Okin et al., 2009; Moreno-de las Heras et al., 2010; Prats et al., 2016).
The variation of soil erosion across scales remains a controversial issue. A theoretical framework, coupling the normalized Green-Ampt equation for infiltration, 1D kinematic wave model for overland flow, and WEPP erosion modeling approaches for soil erosion, was used to explain and quantify the direct effect of scale on the soil erosion process. The results show that the relation between interrill erosion and slope length accords with a power-law decreasing trend, while the relation of rill erosion versus slope length shows a power-law increasing trend. Moreover, the power-law scaling of interrill erosion becomes more prominent with an increase of rainfall duration and intensity but is nearly independent of the interrill erodibility factor. The rainfall duration, soil type, soil critical shear stress, sediment transport coefficient, and rill erodibility factor substantially influence the magnitude of scale effect on rill erosion, while rainfall intensity, slope gradient, and Manning's roughness have minor effects. It suggests that the scale effect on soil erosion is variable and dynamic for different erosion types, rainfall and soil characteristics, which can explain why the controversial scaling relationships of soil erosion exist in previous studies. The physically based soil erosion model WEPP is compared to the empirical models USLE and RUSLE at various scales. Only when rill erosion plays a dominant role in soil loss do all these models exhibit consistent scale effect on erosion. These results provide insights into the essence of scaling in the hillslope soil erosion process, which are expected to benefit the development of upscaling techniques for the large-scale hydrological, geomorphological, and ecological processes.
Accelerated Soil erosion as a source of atmospheric CO<inf>2</inf>
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In general, the eroded material has a high CER since it is preferentially removed because of its low density (0.6–0.8 Mg/m3) and that it is concentrated in vicinity of soil surface. High CER has been reported for eroded sediments from soils of the tropics (Lal, 1976a; Wan and El-Swaify, 1998) and temperate regions (Schiettecatte et al., 2008). Among several factors, the CER also depends on slope length, and decreases with increase in slope length (Müller-Nedebock et al., 2016).
Soil erosion, physical transport of soil over the landscape by alluvial and aeolian processes as source of energy, has a strong impact on the global carbon cycle (GCC). Being a light fraction (bulk density of 0.6–0.8 Mg/m³) and concentrated in vicinity of soil surface, soil organic carbon (SOC) is preferentially removed by water and wind erosion. The process of erosion and the attendant transport of SOC are accelerated by conversion of natural to agroecosystems. Whereas the human-induced acceleration of soil erosion has depleted the SOC stock of agroecosystems, the fate of SOC transported over the landscape and that deposited in depressional sites is not understood. While a fraction of SOC transported to and buried under aquatic ecosystems (e.g., flood plains, lakes, ocean) may be protected because of limited microbial activity, labile fractions of SOC being transported over the landscape enroute to the depositional site are vulnerable to decomposition. Depending on the site-specific conditions with regards to the hydrothermal regimes and the degree of aeration, the decomposition may lead to emission of CO₂ under aerobic environments, CH₄ under anaerobic conditions, and N₂O under both situations. The process of soil erosion, especially that by water, is a 4-stage process: (i) detachment, (ii) splash, (iii) transport and redistribution, and (iv) deposition. Breakdown of aggregates, during the first three stages, exposes the hitherto encapsulated SOC to microbial processes and exacerbates its vulnerability to decomposition. Thus, the fate of SOC subject to erosion must be assessed for all landscape positions and integrated over the watershed. Lack of credible data regarding the fate of SOC at different erosional stages is a major cause of uncertainties. Thus, well-planned research at a watershed-level is needed to assess the impacts of erosional processes on decomposition of SOC, gaseous emission, and the soil/ecosystem C budget for diverse soils and management systems in global biomes/ecoregions. The data on global C budget is incomplete without consideration of the impact of erosion on SOC and the attendant gaseous emissions.
On-farm gains and losses of soil organic carbon in terrestrial hydrological pathways: A review of empirical research
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Theoretical estimates of soil carbon sequestration in Australian farming systems often do not coincide with measured values of soil carbon, possibly due to post sequestration carbon losses. Carbon loss through soil erosion is one of several pathways of sequestered carbon loss from agricultural systems. Specific details on different loss pathways, especially carbon loss through terrestrial hydrological pathways on a farm scale, are sparse. In this article, we review the Australian and global literature on terrestrial on farm carbon gains and losses in hydrological pathways. Catchment scale, landscape scale and modelling studies are not the focus of this review and are only briefly addressed. Carbon fractions associated with soil erosion and runoff include particulate organic and inorganic carbon, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), dissolved CO₂-C and dissolved CH₄-C. Temperate climatic zones with approximately 500 mm of annual rainfall may receive from 6.4 to 29.5 kg ha⁻¹ of DOC in rainfall (with concentration of 1.28–5.9 mg L⁻¹ of DOC in rainwater). Carbon addition (net) to a field through irrigation water can range from 4.6 to 30.8 kg ha⁻¹. The carbon losses through runoff and erosion may vary from below detection limits to 1072 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and these values are significant proportions of SOC sequestration rates reported in literatures. Organic carbon enrichment ratios in eroded sediments range from 0.39 to 5. Total organic carbon concentrations in deep drainage below farming lands range from negligible to 90 mg L⁻¹. Management practices that may influence soil carbon losses in erosion and runoff include changing land use, tillage, ground cover, farm layout and slope, furrow length and vegetative buffer strips in the tail end of the field. The literature surveyed indicated that a large knowledge gap existed in Australia with respect to empirical data on soil carbon lost through erosion and runoff because most studies focussed on nutrients other than carbon. The new carbon farming initiative measure means, a better understanding on the farm level carbon losses through runoff across different farming systems is essential to better predict the SOC sequestration potential. Other gaps include carbon losses in the form of carbon dioxide and methane emissions associated with the irrigation network (head ditches, tail drains etc.), on farm water bodies and sediment depositional sites, farm level carbon gains through irrigation and flooding. Carbon losses in deep drainage and its impact on whole soil profile denitrification and the associated mechanisms and biochemical changes of carbon, and carbon and nitrogen interactions during on-farm transport and storage within on-farm dams needs further investigation.
Soil erosion under teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) plantations: General patterns, assumptions and controversies
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According to the FAO (1980) classification of soil erosion rates, moderate soil and litter accumulation was observed under secondary forests, while low rates of soil loss were recorded in plantations of mature teak and young teak clones, and moderate rates of soil loss in coppiced young teak plantations (Table 2). The reported results (Fig. 1) agree with the theory which states that annual erosion rates are mainly originated by a few individual storms of higher intensity than normal (e.g. Lal, 1976; Zimmermann et al., 2012). In these extreme rain events, rain intensity largely exceeds soil infiltration and hydraulic conductivity, generating overland flow and runoff (eg.
High rates of soil loss are usually assumed under teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) plantations and some debate has been created about this during recent years. We analyzed the processes of soil loss and accumulation in a case study and performed a critical review of literature from other studies, due to the shortage of field experimental data from around the world to sustain this theory. The case study was established in Alfisols and slopes ranging from 30 to 60% in Guanacaste, Costa Rica, and compares secondary forests with mature teak plantations and young teak plantations under different management regimes. Over a period of 14 months with higher rainfall than the regional average, very little soil loss was registered in the teak plantations of Guanacaste, although there were slight differences between treatments (1–4 mm), while soil accumulation was measured in secondary forests (4 mm). A number of other authors also report low levels of soil loss in teak plantations and those studies in which high erosion rates have been identified tend to be associated with teak plantations where fires are a common phenomenon. Hence, we conclude that poor forest management (prescribed fires, machinery, extremely steep slopes, previous land use, etc.) rather than the nature of the teak itself causes the high rates of erosion.
Soil organic carbon fraction losses upon continuous plow-based tillage and its restoration by diverse biomass-C inputs under no-till in sub-tropical and tropical regions of Brazil
2013, Geoderma
Citation Excerpt :
The primary driving forces for decline of SOC under CT are the disruption of soil aggregates, and marked changes in soil environment (i.e., temperature, moisture, and oxygen) thus affecting microbial activity, and the attendant greater access of SOC to microbial processes. In addition, to accelerated soil erosion (Lal, 1976), the bare soil surface under CT is exposed to frequent wet–dry cycles enhancing the turnover rate of aggregates (Beare et al., 1994b). In contrast, adoption of no-till (NT) with no soil disturbance, and where inputs of plant residues (aboveground biomass and roots) and associated turnover of soil biological activity are enhanced, can increase the SOC pool and its stability by physical protection within stable aggregates (Beare et al., 1994a; Six et al., 2000).
The conversion of native vegetation (NV) into agricultural land by clearing and tillage disrupts the soil structure, and depletes soil organic carbon (SOC) pool. The data on changes in SOC pools are needed to enhance scientific knowledge regarding the effects of land use and no-till (NT) systems on soil fertility, agronomic productivity, and soil C sink capacity. Thus, the objective of this study was to quantify changes in SOC fractions due to conversion of NV to agricultural land, and to assess the rate of recovery of SOC fractions and the resilience index of NT cropping systems under sub-tropical (Ponta Grossa/PR — PG) and tropical (Lucas do Rio Verde/MT — LRV) regions of Brazil. The conversion from CT to NT was 29 and 8 years at the PG and LRV sites, respectively. Five different fractions of SOC pools were extracted by chemical methods (i.e., C in the polysaccharides — CTPS, hot-water extractable C — HWEOC, chemically-stabilized organic C — CSOC), and physical fractionation (i.e., particulate organic C — POC, and mineral-associated organic C — MAOC). Land use change primarily altered the labile (HWEOC, TPS, and POC) and also some of the stable (MAOC) pools at both sites. The CSOC pool was almost constant throughout the soil profile and represented, across land uses, 7.2 g C kg^− 1 at the PG and 3.1 g C kg^− 1 at the LRV sites. At the PG site, the HWEOC and CTPS concentrations in the 0–5 cm depth decreased by 56% (1.21 g kg^− 1) and 45% (7.21 g kg^− 1) in CT soil, respectively. At the LRV site, concentrations of HWEOC and CTPS in the 0–5 cm depth decreased by 50% (0.4 g kg^− 1) and 42% (4.8 g kg^− 1), respectively. In contrast, concentrations of HWEOC and CTPS fractions in soil under NT in the 0–20 cm depth were closer than those under NV, and exhibited a distinct gradient from surface to sub-soil layers. The adoption of CT reduced POC by 46% (4.7 Mg ha^− 1), and MAOC by 21% (15.1 Mg C ha^− 1) in the 0–20 cm depth at the PG site. Using CT for 23 years at the LRV site, decreased SOC fractions in the 0–20 cm depth at the rate of 0.25 and 0.34 Mg C ha^− 1 yr^− 1 for POC and MAOC, respectively. In contrast, adoption of intensive NT systems in tropical agro-ecoregions increased POC at the rate of 0.23 to 0.36 Mg C ha^− 1 yr^− 1, and MAOC by 0.52 and 0.70 Mg C ha^− 1 yr^− 1. An important effect to be emphasized is the possibility of recovering, at least partially, the SOC fractions by adopting high biomass-C inputs under NT management, and despite the fact that the experimental duration at the LRV site was only eight years. With a high and diversified input of biomass-C in intensive NT systems, higher resilience index was observed for CTPS, HWEOC, and MAOC. The variation in SOC among CT and NT systems was mainly attributed to the MAOC fraction, indicating that a significant proportion of that fraction is relatively labile, and that spatial inaccessibility of SOC plays a significant role in the restoration of SOC.

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Soil erosion on alfisols in Western Nigeria: I. Effects of slope, crop rotation and residue management

Abstract

The effect of mulching and methods of cultivation on runoff and erosion from Muskingwan silt loam

Agric. Eng.

Effect of cultural techniques on runoff and erosion in Casamance (Senegal)

Agron. Trop.

Research on soil erosion in Africa

Agric. Soils

Soil erosion by water as affected by reduced tillage system

Erosion control research

Rhod. Agric. J.

Field measurements of accelerated soil erosion in localised areas

Rhod. Agric. J.

Results obtained in the measurement of erosion and runoff in Southern Rhodesia

The hydrology of a small catchment basin in Samaru, Nigeria, IV. Assessment of soil erosion under varied land management and vegetation cover

Niger. Agric. J.

Soil erosion and shifting agriculture

FAO Soils Bull.

Tillage methods to reduce runoff and erosion in the corn-belt

Agric. Inf. Bull. U.S. Dep. Agric. Res. Serv.

The effects of different methods of corn stalk residue management on runoff and erosion as evaluated by simulated rainfall

The effect of various rates of surface mulch on infiltration and erosion