1 Introduction

The rapid development of information and communication technology (ICT) has propelled its significance in society, positioning it as a driving force in various socio-economic domains. The recent revolution of ChatGPT in artificial intelligence is a significant transition in how things are done (Salleh 2023). The transition from traditional interpersonal interactions to technology-mediated exchanges following the pandemic has increased globally. The increase of ICT in China is more pronounced than elsewhere, both in the argument for its favour and against. Additional file 1: Appendices A, B and C show the patterns of engineering students across China. In the former case, Chinese higher education increasingly values ICT (information and communication technology) disciplines among other science-driven technological fields (Malik 2023c). China has made progress in science discovery in research and publication and in graduate students. In 2022, China has risen in research publications ahead of the USA to the top position in publications related to computational mathematics/mechanics, computer networks and communication, Computer Application, Computer Science, and Computer Vision and Patterns Recognition. China is second to the USA in Computation Theory and Mathematics, Computer Graphics and Aided Design, and Computers in Earth Sciences.

On the contrary, the OECD (Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development) estimates that the Chinese ICT diffusion is 50% of the OECD countries (OECD 2020). This proportion is lower than developed countries but higher than the world average in internet penetration, with 75.6 per cent of the Chinese population using the internet compared to 64.4 per cent of the world. The conflict views suggest that the increase in one or the other aspect and effectiveness of abstract learning compared to concrete learning raises questions and the ensuing implications for the students’ satisfaction and preferences. While universities offering ICT education and research attract a competitive and prestigious cohort of students, limited understanding exists regarding student satisfaction with their ICT major discipline and university.

This study aims to investigate students’ satisfaction levels in the ICT field, considering both concrete and abstract perspectives. Drawing upon the construal level theory (CLT), we sought to categorise ICT majors into integrated and disintegrated levels based on their concreteness or abstractness. The integrated level encompassed four majors, while the disintegrated level comprised 31 sub-disciplines. Our findings align with CLT, demonstrating that concrete and abstract construal levels yield distinct outcomes. At the integrated level, two disciplines (electrical and Automation) were classified as concrete, while the other (electronic information and computing) were categorised as abstract. This binary classification represents the highest degree of integration among ICT disciplines across universities. In contrast, the disintegrated level displayed 31 sub-disciplines along the concrete-abstract spectrum.

This study offers a simple empirical question. Does abstract versus concrete discipline affect student satisfaction across Chinese universities in the ICT field, and if so, what explains the differences and satisfaction on the abstract-concrete spectrum in the integrated level versus disintegrated level of analysis?

1.1 Construal level theory

The explanation of the relationship between ICT disciplines and students’ satisfaction across Chinese universities is built on Construal Level Theory (CLT), a psychological framework that proposes that individuals perceive and process information differently based on the level of psychological distance they associate with a situation or concept (McCrea et al. 2008; Trope and Liberman 2010; Trope et al. 2007). Building upon CLT, these previous studies argued that high-level construal aligns with perceived distance, while low-level construal aligns with perceived proximity to the situation. Furthermore, distal future scenarios and distant places are more likely to elicit high-level construal, whereas near-future scenarios and nearby places are more likely to elicit low-level construal. Additionally, abstract concepts tend to be associated with psychological distance, while concrete concepts are associated with psychological proximity. Empirical studies have drawn on CLT to answer the satisfaction question on the construal levels (Humphreys et al. 2021; Pizzi et al. 2015; Sinha and Lu 2019; Yudkin et al. 2020).

Drawing upon CLT and empirical research, it is reasonable to assume that a positive relationship exists between psychological distance and the fit between abstract concepts within the context of ICT disciplines and students’ satisfaction across Chinese universities. In other words, Chinese university students are likely to show a positive relation between a distant situation or concept in the ICT context, which aligns with abstract thinking. Similarly, a positive relationship between psychological proximity and the fit between concrete concepts within the same context can be expected. This suggests that Chinese university students are likely to show a positive relation between a proximal situation or concepts in the ICT concept, which aligns with concrete thinking. Applying these assumptions to the context of student satisfaction across Chinese universities in the ICT field of education, research, and practice, we can predict the types of fits and their implications. Authors in a variety of settings have used CLT to explain technological antecedents and consequences at different levels of integration (Harvey 2022; Ho, Ke, Liu, and Chau 2020; Lee et al. 2019; Mount et al. 2021; Wilson et al. 2013). Therefore, we anticipate that integrated and disintegrated levels of construal fit can produce insights for theory, phenomenon and practice (Malik 2023a, b). Hence, the theory, assumptions and evidence indicate that the integrated level of disciplines, the concrete fit, on the one hand, and the disintegrated level of disciplines and abstract fit, on the other hand, can produce high satisfaction.

1.2 Concrete construal and satisfaction

Construal Level Theory offers insights into how individuals perceive and mentally represent information at varying levels of abstraction. In the context of the ICT field, this theory helps shed light on the impact of concrete disciplines on learning outcomes and satisfaction as it does in concrete narratives and satisfaction in other contexts (Malik 2023a). Concrete disciplines within ICT refer to specific, practical applications that involve hands-on experiences and tangible outcomes. These disciplines provide a clear pathway for individuals to understand and implement processes, feasibility, and effective means to achieve desired goals. Students can actively participate in the subject by engaging in concrete tasks and applying their knowledge in the real world. The concrete level of construal, as opposed to the abstract level, emphasises experiential learning more strongly than cognitive learning. Experiential learning involves direct engagement with the material through physical action and utilising the five senses. In the case of ICT, this might involve tasks such as programming, troubleshooting hardware, or designing user interfaces. Students can better understand the subject matter and its practical applications by actively involving themselves in these hands-on activities.

Compared to cognitive learning, which relies on developing mental models and constructing abstract schemas, experiential learning through concrete disciplines offers distinct advantages (Hoover et al. 2012; Kayes 2002; Kolb and Kolb 2012). Concrete disciplines enable students to grasp concepts by directly interacting with the material, observing the immediate results of their actions, and making connections between theory and practice. This approach enhances their comprehension and fosters a sense of satisfaction and achievement. Students’ engagement in action, both physically and through their five senses, provides a rich learning experience. They can see, touch, hear, and sometimes taste and smell elements related to the ICT discipline. This multisensory engagement enhances their learning process and makes it more engaging and memorable.

Consequently, the satisfaction level of students is likely to increase when they are actively involved in concrete disciplines, as they experience a sense of accomplishment and fulfilment through their direct involvement and hands-on experiences. In the context of ICT education, students enrolled in concrete disciplines at an integrated level of disciplines are more likely to experience higher satisfaction due to the reduced psychological distance. When students engage with concrete disciplines, such as programming or hardware development, they are involved in direct and tangible experiences. These experiences provide a low psychological distance as students interact with real-world applications and see immediate results. This low psychological distance enables students to form a concrete and detailed mental representation of the subject matter, enhancing their sense of understanding and satisfaction.

Moreover, integrating disciplines within the ICT sector further decreases the psychological distance for students. By combining multiple related fields, integrated disciplines provide students with a comprehensive view of ICT concepts and their practical applications. This holistic approach bridges the gap between various abstract concepts and real-world scenarios, thereby reducing the psychological distance and facilitating a deeper level of engagement. Consequently, students enrolled in integrated disciplines are more likely to experience higher satisfaction levels than those studying abstract disciplines, as their learning experiences are more directly linked to tangible outcomes.

Firstly, concrete disciplines in the ICT sector often involve hands-on experiences, practical applications, and tangible outcomes. For example, disciplines like web development, computer programming, or network administration allow students to directly engage with technology and see the results of their work. Such tangible experiences are likely to be more immediately relevant and satisfying to students, as they can observe the direct impact of their efforts. In contrast, abstract disciplines, such as theoretical computer science or algorithm design, may focus more on conceptual frameworks and mathematical models, which some students perceive as less relevant or tangible. According to CLT, when individuals perceive an experience as more concrete and proximal, they tend to find it more engaging and satisfying.

Secondly, psychological proximity and engagement fit the concrete situation with low-level construal. CLT suggests that individuals tend to perceive concrete experiences as more proximal. In ICT education, abstract disciplines might be perceived as psychologically distant due to their focus on theoretical concepts or complex abstractions. This psychological distance can potentially decrease student engagement and satisfaction. Concrete disciplines, on the other hand, with their immediate relevance and hands-on nature, are more likely to be perceived as psychologically close. As a result, students may feel more engaged, connected, and satisfied with their learning experiences in these disciplines. Thirdly, concreteness increases clarity and comprehension. Concrete disciplines in the ICT sector often provide clearer and more easily understandable learning materials, instructions, and examples. This clarity can enhance students’ comprehension and reduce cognitive load, leading to higher satisfaction levels. Abstract disciplines may involve complex theories, intricate algorithms, or advanced mathematical concepts that can be challenging for some students to grasp initially. This increased cognitive effort and potential confusion could impact their satisfaction levels. CLT suggests that when information is presented in a more concrete and accessible manner, individuals find it easier to process and derive satisfaction from it.

Hypothesis 1: In the ICT sector, students enrolled in concrete disciplines at integrated levels of disciplines will report higher levels of satisfaction compared to students enrolled in abstract disciplines.

The explanation is straightforward: concrete disciplines are likely to induce preference and satisfaction more than abstract disciplines because of the fit between the temporal proximity and concrete disciplines. However, the empirical evidence and theory posit a significant difference in satisfaction levels between students studying concrete disciplines and those studying abstract disciplines in the ICT sector. It suggests the hands-on, tangible nature of concrete disciplines, combined with their perceived relevance, psychological proximity, clarity, and comprehensibility. It might be true at the integrated level that concrete. In contrast, students in abstract disciplines may experience lower satisfaction due to the perceived remoteness, cognitive complexity, and potential lack of immediate tangible outcomes associated with these disciplines. It raises challenges for the disintegrated disciplines on the abstract versus concrete disciplines. Hypothesis 1 can be supported by applying construal-level theory to the context of the ICT sector. Construal level theory posits that abstractness or concreteness in one’s thinking influences one’s psychological distance from the subject matter and subsequently impacts one’s satisfaction.

1.3 Abstract construal and satisfaction

CLT can explain the effects of abstract disciplines in information and communication technology (ICT) on our cognitive processes and learning experiences. Abstract disciplines, such as theoretical concepts and complex frameworks in ICT, tend to direct our attention towards overarching goals, the desirability of outcomes, and long-term values. Engaging with abstract concepts in the ICT field stimulates our cognitive processes, fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The abstract construal level refers to how we mentally represent and interpret information, focusing on future possibilities and outcomes rather than immediate experiences or past events. By contemplating the distal future implications of our actions within the ICT domain, we can cultivate a forward-thinking mindset and develop a broader perspective.

In contrast to experiential learning, which involves hands-on, tangible engagement, abstract disciplines in the ICT field predominantly rely on cognitive engagement. Rather than physically interacting with technology or devices, we immerse ourselves in ideas, theories, and analytical thinking. This cognitive engagement encourages us to explore and analyse complex concepts, unravel intricate problems, and devise innovative solutions. As a result of this cognitive emphasis, satisfaction levels tend to increase when engaging with abstract disciplines in the ICT field. The intellectual challenge presented by abstract concepts fosters a sense of accomplishment and fulfilment as we unravel complex problems and gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter. This satisfaction arises from the mental stimulation and growth accompanying cognitive engagement, providing a sense of achievement and progress in our learning journey. Evidence also supports the abstract-satisfaction relationship CLT.

Abstract disciplines can contribute positively to students’ satisfaction, as supported by several studies in the literature. Choi et al. (2016) found that vicarious learning, a process that is often associated with abstract situations, can enhance individuals’ knowledge acquisition and satisfaction. Halamish et al. (2013) demonstrated that distance and construal level effects play a role in memory and metamemory judgments, indicating that psychological distance, characteristic of abstract situations, can influence cognitive processes and potentially contribute to satisfaction. Ho et al. (2020) examined technology adoption. They highlighted the role of construal level in separate versus joint evaluation, suggesting that abstract thinking can affect individuals’ evaluation and adoption of new technologies.

Furthermore, abstract thinking can positively impact decision-making processes, contributing to overall satisfaction within an organisational context (Malik 2023b). Contextualised in the temporal distance domain, scholars have explored the concept of time in the psychological distance regarding the abstract on the distance side of the spectrum and proximity on the concrete side. Tumasjan et al. (2013) investigated the role of temporal distance in opportunity evaluation and exploitation, suggesting that individuals may evaluate opportunities differently depending on the level of psychological distance involved. This finding implies that abstract situations, which are psychologically distant, may offer unique and valuable opportunities that can enhance satisfaction. Additionally, the literature demonstrates that construal level affects various aspects of individuals’ cognition and decision-making processes. Nguyen et al. (2019) explored the role of high-level and low-level construal in goal-relevant task performance, showing that different construal levels can influence task performance and satisfaction. Vilches-Montero and Spence (2015) explored the effect of construal level on time perceptions, confidence in judgments, and future preferences, indicating that abstract thinking can influence individuals’ perceptions and preferences.

Moreover, in the organisational and consumer-related research, studies have investigated the impact of construal level on consumer behaviour and satisfaction, which is analogous to the construal levels at the university and students’ satisfaction. Humphreys et al. (2021) applied text analysis to illuminate the consumer decision journey. They found evidence of construal matching in online searches, suggesting that aligning the construal level in marketing content with consumers’ cognitive processes can enhance satisfaction. Pizzi et al. (2015) examined the temporal construal of customer satisfaction and found that different construal levels can influence individuals’ satisfaction evaluations. Sinha and Lu (2019) explored the effects of retail exclusion on construal levels and consumer responses to compensation, highlighting the role of construal levels in shaping consumer reactions.

These studies support the argument that abstract ideas associated with distance induce positive emotions compared to the concrete and proximal distance in any situation. The ICT discipline as a situation of interest can positively contribute to students’ satisfaction when they are abstract. The literature suggests that abstract situations, characterised by psychological and temporal distance, can enhance cognitive processes, decision-making, and goal pursuit. This leads to higher levels of motivation, engagement, and satisfaction because concreteness invokes cost-related primers and abstractness invokes benefit-related primers. By embracing abstract disciplines, students can develop higher-order thinking skills, engage in intellectual exploration, and gain a broader understanding of the subject matter, contributing to their overall satisfaction and long-term success.

Hypothesis 2: In the ICT sector, students enrolled in abstract disciplines will report higher satisfaction levels than students enrolled in concrete disciplines.

2 Method

This study investigated student satisfaction levels in concrete and abstract disciplines within Chinese universities’ Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector. Specifically, the study explored whether students enrolled in concrete disciplines reported higher satisfaction levels than those in abstract disciplines. The survey data used in this study were collected by official organisations and accessed in 2023.

The participants of this study comprised undergraduate and postgraduate students enrolled in various ICT majors in Chinese universities. A purposive sampling technique was employed to ensure representation from different universities, majors, and academic years. The sample size was determined based on statistical power calculations to ensure adequate statistical validity. From the subject directory provided by the Chinese Ministry of Education’s Sunlight College Entrance Examination Information Platform, 31 ICT majors were available for sampling. The platform provided data on satisfactory undergraduate institutions for 912 searchable majors. Therefore, the participants of this study consisted of undergraduate students from various ICT majors in Chinese universities.

The satisfaction information for each major was derived from the recommendations of students from the respective universities regarding the educational conditions of their own majors. Only students who had registered with their real names were eligible to provide recommendations. The Sunlight College Entrance Examination Information Platform of the Ministry of Education conducted the statistical analysis and publication of this dataset, and this data source was open to all universities and majors in China. Students participated in the survey voluntarily. Among the sampled 31 ICT majors, 348,108 valid voting records from registered students were obtained, ensuring the statistical validity of the data.

This study employed a cross-sectional research design to examine the impact of abstract disciplines on student satisfaction in China, specifically within the context of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) disciplines. The data utilised in this study were collected by the Ministry of Education through a formalised annual data collection process. As part of this process, standardised questionnaires were administered to students at various points throughout the academic year. The questionnaire content was concise, with registered students directly providing their recommendation index for a specific major on the website based on their satisfaction impression of that major. The satisfaction data for each major were presented in the form of real-time updated scores, including historical overall scores. Each student was not allowed to accumulate votes, ensuring the accuracy and integrity of the data.

The Sunlight College Entrance Examination Information Platform of the Ministry of Education conducted the survey. The questionnaire adopted a Likert scale format, ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied), to measure student satisfaction levels. Data collection was achieved through the compilation of website data. The Ministry of Education’s Sunlight College Entrance Examination Information Platform publicly released the statistical results of satisfaction, making the publicly available data directly usable for the purpose of this study. In summary, this study employed a cross-sectional research design and obtained data from the Ministry of Education’s annual data collection process. The data were collected through standardised questionnaires administered to students, and the satisfaction scores were publicly available on the Sunlight College Entrance Examination Information Platform. The study focused on undergraduate students from various ICT majors in Chinese universities, aiming to investigate the impact of abstract disciplines on student satisfaction levels.

2.1 Variables

2.1.1 Dependent variable

The dependent variable is the students’ satisfaction based on self-reported responses to a yearly formal survey by the Ministry of Education in China. The satisfaction level is measured on a Likert scale (1-least satisfied to 5-most satisfied). We transformed the variable with log value to normalise it and then standardised it to 10-scale to conform to other variables.

2.1.2 Independent variables

The first independent variable is binary, representing integrated levels of four disciplines in the ICT field across universities. Ranking the four disciplines on a concrete-abstract scale, from more concrete to more abstract, produced four levels: two on the concrete side and two on the abstract side. Concreteness of Electrical Engineering and Automation is the concrete end of the spectrum. Electrical Engineering is considered more concrete as it deals with physical components, circuits, and systems. It involves working with tangible devices, power systems, and telecommunications equipment. Likewise, Automation is primarily concrete as it involves designing and implementing systems and processes that automate tasks. It focuses on physical components like sensors, actuators, and control systems. Therefore, the concrete concept takes one side compared to the abstract on the other side.

On the abstract side, the Electronic Information and computer represent the other side of the binary categorisation of concrete versus abstract. Electronic Information, interpreted as Information Science or Technology, can be considered somewhat in the middle of the concrete-abstract scale. While it has abstract aspects such as information systems and data analytics, its practical application often involves concrete tools, technologies, and software systems. Computer Science is generally regarded as the most abstract among the four disciplines. It deals with theoretical concepts, algorithms, programming languages, and computational theory. Computer scientists often work with abstract models and mathematical foundations to develop solutions that can be applied in various concrete applications.

Additional file 1: Appendix D below shows the constituents of the integrated disciplines and defines their scopes and scales. The upper two disciplines received 0 for being abstract, and the lower two disciplines received 1 for being concrete.

The second independent variable is the disintegrated discipliners and their order on the most concrete and least concrete or the most abstract and least abstract. Additional file 1: Appendix E shows 31 sub-disciplines categorised by the education system in the ICT field across universities. Unlike the binary categorisation of the concrete versus abstract, we organised the construal levels in a hierarchy order based on experts’ input. We asked academic experts and professionals in the field to rank these sub-fields of the ICT disciplines at Chinese universities. Experts at the Computing Department of Northeastern University in Shenyang, Liaoning Province, provided these disciplines’ most specific, detailed and meaningful ranking, as shown in Additional file 1: Appendix E. We followed this order of sub-disciplines based on abstract-concrete scales in the analysis.

2.1.3 Data analysis

The collected data are analysed using appropriate statistical techniques to examine the levels of student satisfaction in concrete and abstract disciplines within the ICT sector in Chinese universities. Descriptive statistics, such as means and standard deviations, are calculated for each satisfaction item and overall satisfaction in both discipline types. A t-test or non-parametric equivalent is used to compare the mean satisfaction levels between concrete and abstract disciplines. Furthermore, subgroup analyses based on student characteristics, such as academic year, gender, and prior experience, may be conducted to explore potential moderating effects.

This method section outlines the approach for investigating student satisfaction in concrete and abstract disciplines within the ICT sector in Chinese universities. By utilising multiple frequencies of formal surveys and employing a comparative design, the study aims to provide insights into potential differences in satisfaction levels between the two discipline types. The findings contribute to our understanding of student experiences and preferences in the ICT sector and can inform educational institutions in designing and improving their ICT programs.

2.1.4 Model and analysis

To analyse the data, the authors used multilevel mixed method regression analysis, which was based on the multilevel structure of the dataset at the university level and discipline level. The formal specification of the model is as follows:

$${Satisfaction}_{ij} ={\beta }_{0j}+{\beta }_{1j}*{Ranking}_{ij}+{\epsilon }_{ij}$$
(1)

In formula (1), \({\beta }_{0j}\) contains the following elements:

$${\beta }_{0j}={\gamma }_{00}+{\gamma }_{01 }*{Province}_{j}+{u}_{0j}$$
(2)

\({Satisfaction}_{ij}\) = satisfaction of the \(i\)-th student in the \(j\)-th discipline.

\({Ranking}_{ij}\) = abstract versus concrete discipline ranking of the \(j\)-th discipline for the \(i\)-th student.

\({\beta }_{0j}\) = the intercept for the \(j\)-th discipline, capturing the average satisfaction level.

\({\beta }_{1j}\) = effect of the abstract versus concrete discipline ranking on student satisfaction for the \(j\)-th discipline.

\({\epsilon }_{ij}\) = the individual-level residual error, which is an unexplained variance at the student level.

\({\gamma }_{00}\) = the province level, the intercept is the average satisfaction level across all disciplines within a given province.

\({\gamma }_{01}\) = the effect of the province on the intercept, accounting for differences in satisfaction levels across provinces.

\({u}_{0j}\) = the random intercept for the \(j\)-th discipline at the province level, accounting for discipline-specific variations in student satisfaction.

3 Results

The result section contains two parts: graphical results and statistical tables. The steps in the graphical presentation of the results show two-way correlations for the fitted lines across models. The statistical results show the summary, correlation matrix and regression to test the hypotheses of whether abstract or concrete disciplines induce more satisfaction among students.

3.1 Graphical results

Figure 1 shows a two-way correlation between concrete-abstract construal levels of student satisfaction in the university in the ICT discipline. Satisfaction is shown on the Y-axis, and construal levels of disciplines are shown on the X-axis. The construal level varies on the 10-scale, normalised and standardised.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Two-way correlation between concrete-abstract construal levels of student satisfaction in the university in the ICT discipline

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Figure 2 shows the two-way nonlinear correlations between construal levels and students’ satisfaction in the ICT discipline.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Two-correlation of nonlinear correlation between construal of the ICT discipline and student satisfaction. Note: Disintegrated 31 disciplines under four integrated disciplines

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3.2 Statistical tables

Table 1 shows summary statistics of the variables. The binary variable is coded 1-abstract, 0-concrete. Likewise, the continuous variable is coded as high score = abstract and low score = concrete. We normalised and standardised students’ satisfaction and abstract-concrete scales on 10-points.

Table 1 Summary statistics
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Table 2 shows the correlation matrix, and the inter-variable correlations are within the range of conventional assumptions. High correlations between independent variables raise questions of multilinearity. In this table, the matrix meets conventional norms.

Table 2 Correlation matrix
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Table 3 shows results from a multilevel mixed model. Level is the discipline; Level 2 is the university, and Level 3 is the province. Regarding the binary abstract-concrete spectrum, the coefficient is negative (-0.249, p < 0.001). However, regarding the continuous abstract-concrete spectrum, the coefficient is positive (0.041, p < 0.001).

Table 3 Multilevel mixed model regression
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4 Discussion

The advent of ICT (information and communication technology) has significantly increased society’s focus on learning, development, and leadership in this sector, positioning it as a future powerhouse across various socio-economic fields. With the shift from conventional interpersonal interaction to technology-mediated interaction after the pandemic, students’ satisfaction with their disciplines and universities raises the question of abstract learning versus concrete learning. As the attention on ICT grows, universities offering education and research in this field attract a competitive and prestigious intake of students due to the rising numbers. However, there is limited understanding of how satisfied students feel with their ICT major discipline and university.

In this study, we aimed to explore whether students in the ICT field feel satisfied with their major discipline from both a concrete and abstract perspective. We employed the construal level theory (CLT) to answer this question, allowing us to rank majors within ICT universities based on their degree of concreteness or abstractness. We categorised majors into two levels: integrated and disintegrated. The integrated level comprised four majors, while the disintegrated level consisted of 31 sub-disciplines.

In this study, we focused the sample on ICT-related disciplines rather than general disciplines for three main reasons:

Firstly, a certain degree of heterogeneity exists among different disciplines, and even contradictory empirical conclusions might arise from different disciplines. The social positioning, curriculum characteristics, and composition of personnel within these disciplines can influence this. Therefore, when exploring factors influencing student satisfaction with the CLT framework, selecting a specific discipline category for observation is appropriate. As a highly consensus-related subset of disciplines, ICT is built upon IT technology and emphasises interdisciplinary and innovative characteristics. This classification helps establish stable empirical findings and reduces endogeneity issues caused by disciplinary heterogeneity.

Secondly, within the explanatory context of CLT, the interpretation logic of abstract-concrete levels within ICT disciplines is similar. This abstract-concrete spectrum is conducive to forming a unified measurement standard for independent variables. For instance, in the case of art-related disciplines, the interpretation of abstract and concrete aspects might differ from that of ICT-related disciplines. Additionally, experts usually better understand attributes within similar or related disciplines when scoring the degree of abstractness of disciplines. They may not be familiar with disciplines that span a wide spectrum. Therefore, focusing on ICT-related disciplines as the observation objects helps avoid the risk of inconsistent measurement standards in the initial exploration phase.

Thirdly, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a distinct and pivotal role in stimulating industrial innovation, fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, driving digital transformation, and promoting sustainability. Against widespread disciplinary heterogeneity, conducting exploratory research focused on the ICT domain becomes essential. The research findings can provide direct and reliable decision-making support for educational policies related to ICT-related disciplines.

Our findings align with CLT, as concrete and abstract construal levels produced different outcomes. At the integrated level, we identified two disciplines (electrical and Automation) as belonging to the concrete category and the other two disciplines (electronic information and computing) as falling into the abstract category. This binary categorisation represents the highest level of integration among ICT disciplines across universities, compared to the disintegrated level with its 31 sub-disciplines on the concrete-abstract spectrum. The categorisation was determined with the assistance of experts from academia and industry. Interestingly, we observed opposite results in terms of student satisfaction when comparing concrete and abstract disciplines. Concrete disciplines predicted higher satisfaction levels at the integrated level compared to abstract disciplines in the ICT field. However, abstract disciplines resulted in higher satisfaction levels at the disintegrated level. This implies a preference for concreteness at the integrated level and a preference for abstractness at the disintegrated level. When considering the findings at the disintegrated level, we discovered a correlation between positive versus negative perceptions of reality based on psychic distance, as explained by CLT.

As noted in the previous comment, every discipline has a spectrum of abstract-concrete phenomena within and between disciplines. Some disciplines’ contents, processes, and contexts are more concrete than others. For instance, in arts, music is more abstract than visual art. In other words, acoustic disciplines are more abstract than visual disciplines. The same applies to the ICT sector. Between disciplines, STEM (science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) are more concrete disciplines than social psychology, ethics, culture, and philosophy (Malik 2023c). For instance, operation research is more concrete than humanities because the former often deals with manufacturing processes (physical), and those abstract ideas deal with creativity. This study builds on empirical exploration and elaboration based on CLT. The research findings align with the core logic of CLT. They are further reinforced by the hierarchical observation achieved through categorising disciplines into specific and abstract levels, following the principles of CLT.

We can reasonably extend the above findings to satisfaction-related research areas in other disciplines and outside education. In extending the conclusions of this study to other types of disciplines or fields, the fundamental principles of CLT should remain consistent. If future scholars question the interdisciplinary comparison of abstract-concrete issues, it can be applied across disciplines. We aimed to focus on ICT-related issues, confirming that abstractness versus concreteness leads to different psychological outcomes. We do not claim that such is true in contexts outside the university because we do not have data on that. Moreover, multiple factors can influence a variation, which is an interesting question for others to explore. We anticipate that future research will explore a wider range of disciplines, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the explanatory power of CLT and the factors influencing student satisfaction.

Current research on student satisfaction predominantly revolves around perspectives of participant personality traits (Chang et al. 2022; Zhang and Renshaw 2020), competency characteristics (Cheng and Xie 2021; Kirschner et al. 2006), perceived quality (Pham, Limbu, Bui, Nguyen, and Pham 2019; Zhai et al. 2017), and perceived value (Hwang and Choi 2019; Kim and Kim 2021). Within these research angles and findings, there remains an inconsistency in explaining the impact of knowledge system abstraction on students’ perceived satisfaction. The abstraction of knowledge systems is intricately linked to educational reform directions. Some viewpoints suggest that concretising knowledge systems often accompanies higher perceived value, including specific comprehension of knowledge, more frequent and in-depth interactions, and friendlier communication relationships (Chang et al. 2022; Chernikova et al. 2020; Kim and Kim 2021; Merola et al. 2019). Conversely, another perspective argues that abstracting knowledge systems can enhance satisfaction perception from another perspective, as it could boost students’ cognitive abstraction abilities, broaden perspectives, and increase knowledge accumulation, potentially leading to higher academic achievements and life pursuits (Chinedu, Olabiyi, and Kamin 2015; Eddy et al. 2021; Kirschner et al. 2006).

Analysing the issue of knowledge system complexity solely from the perspectives of perceived quality and perceived value may not effectively resolve the divergences in current viewpoints. The existing literature does not answer why student satisfaction varies. In contrast, this study employs CLT as an explanatory framework to examine the influence of abstraction and concreteness of disciplines on student satisfaction from a psychological distance perspective. It also attempts to explain the differences in satisfaction resulting from integrated and dispersed levels of abstraction and concreteness. This analytical approach aids in understanding the reasons behind these disparities and determining which perspective should be adopted for ICT disciplines.

Construal Level Theory (CLT) can help us understand why abstract disciplines induce greater satisfaction among students in the ICT field at universities in China compared to concrete disciplines. CLT suggests that individuals mentally construe or interpret information based on their psychological distance from the present (Trope et al. 2007). Firstly, abstract disciplines in the ICT field are typically characterised by a higher psychological distance than concrete disciplines (Adler and Sarstedt 2021). Abstract disciplines involve concepts, theories, and principles that are more removed from immediate sensory experiences and everyday life. On the other hand, concrete disciplines involve practical and tangible skills that are directly applicable to real-world situations (Adler and Sarstedt 2021). Secondly, abstract disciplines align with a higher level of construal, which involves a more holistic, global, and abstract way of thinking (Carrera et al. 2020). Students engaging with abstract concepts in the ICT field are encouraged to think beyond specific details and consider broader implications, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual connections (Carrera et al. 2020). This higher-level construal allows for greater intellectual exploration and fosters a sense of depth and complexity in students’ understanding (Carrera et al. 2020). Thirdly, abstract disciplines offer cognitive flexibility in the ICT field. Engaging with abstract disciplines enhances cognitive flexibility, which refers to switching between different perspectives and mental frameworks (Fujita and Carnevale 2012). Abstract concepts require students to think critically, analyse information, and make connections between seemingly unrelated ideas (Fujita and Carnevale 2012). This cognitive flexibility enables students to approach problem-solving more creatively and innovatively, creating a sense of intellectual stimulation and satisfaction (Fujita and Carnevale 2012).

Fourthly, abstract disciplines make future-oriented promises because they inherently have a future-oriented focus ((Mount et al. 2021). Students studying abstract concepts in the ICT field are often preparing themselves for careers that involve cutting-edge technologies, innovation, and advancements that lie ahead (Mount et al. 2021). This future orientation can be exciting and motivating as students see themselves contributing to the field’s evolution and envisioning potential impacts on society (Mount et al. 2021). Lastly, abstract disciplines tend to be intellectually challenging, requiring students to engage in higher-order thinking, analytical reasoning, and problem-solving (Lermer et al. 2015). This level of cognitive demand can be intrinsically rewarding, as students derive satisfaction from mastering complex ideas and developing their intellectual capabilities (Lermer et al. 2015). The sense of accomplishment and personal growth that comes from tackling abstract challenges can contribute to overall satisfaction with the learning experience (Lermer et al. 2015). By considering the psychological distance, higher-level construal, cognitive flexibility, future orientation, and intellectual challenge of abstract disciplines, we can better understand why students in the ICT field in China find greater satisfaction in these disciplines compared to concrete ones. These findings are supported by various studies in the field (Adler and Sarstedt 2021; Carrera et al. 2020; Fujita and Carnevale 2012; Trope et al. 2007).

The sample used in this study includes a substantial amount of online survey data results. Due to the favourable nature of the data source, we do not need to be concerned about respondent distribution bias for three reasons:

Firstly, the survey exhibits a high level of accessibility. The Chinese Ministry of Education operates the website directly, ensuring comprehensive and obligatory survey participation. The site displays 4.94 million verified voting records, showcasing unparalleled impartiality that surpasses most common questionnaire-based and field survey studies. Secondly, the survey benefits from high convenience. After being informed of the mandatory registration requirement, students respond by directly filling out the survey on the website’s interface. This step takes only seconds, further minimising any feedback bias. Thirdly, given the heightened accessibility and convenience, the survey results themselves reflect authentic satisfaction levels. In other words, the impact of satisfaction on reality is rooted in word-of-mouth effects (Schreiner and Nelson 2013; Zhen et al. 2019), and the influence of silent groups’ word-of-mouth impact on reality can be mostly disregarded.

Another concern that readers might have is whether there are some significant endogenous variables along the correlation pathway between concreteness and student satisfaction. One of the most representative factors in this regard would be the job satisfaction of different majors (represented by salary levels). In other words, is the primary influencing factor on student satisfaction levels actually the salary level rather than the abstractness of the discipline?

We have obtained the “employment satisfaction” indicators for various ICT majors, and regression analysis reveals a notable correlation among the independent variable (degree of abstraction in the major), employment satisfaction, and the dependent variable (overall satisfaction). The results are as follows.

According to Tables 4, 5 and 6, it can be observed that the supplementary variable, job satisfaction, is consistently correlated with the outcome variable, student satisfaction, at around 0.3, whether at the disintegrated level or the integrated level, with all p-values being less than 0.001. In conjunction with causal knowledge, this indicates that job satisfaction (salary level) indeed maintains a stable positive influence on overall student satisfaction. Meanwhile, concreteness is significantly correlated with job satisfaction. At the disintegrated level, the correlation coefficient is 0.078 (p < 0.001), and at the integrated level, the coefficient for the concrete group is -0.222 (p < 0.001), whereas the correlation for the abstract group is not significant.

Table 4 Correlation of overall sample correlation (N = 3194, disintegrated)
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Table 5 Correlation of automation and electrical (integrated, concrete) group
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Table 6 Correlation of electronic information and computing (integrated, abstract) group
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Overall, there is a correlation between job satisfaction and concreteness. Following causal knowledge, concreteness leads to regular variations in job satisfaction. We can interpret this phenomenon based on the analysis logic presented earlier: concrete disciplines gain more satisfaction and are more likely to be sought after for employment. The visual effects have tremendously increased in the ICT sector, and the market is seeking more concrete disciplines.

Therefore, based on the results in Tables 4, 5 and 6 and the theoretical analysis, we can reasonably conclude that job satisfaction is an intermediate variable between concreteness and student satisfaction. We preliminarily determine this as a form of partial mediation. Given that concreteness effectively explains job satisfaction and the strong correlation between job satisfaction and student satisfaction, there doesn’t seem to be apparent endogeneity between concreteness and student satisfaction. The primary findings of this study are not likely to be disrupted.

Furthermore, from the correlation coefficient information in Tables 4, 5 and 6, it is evident that a nonlinear inverted U-shaped relationship exists between concreteness and job satisfaction, similar to the relationship between concreteness and student satisfaction. This can be clearly observed from Figs. 1 and 2. This suggests that job satisfaction not only acts as a mediator in the entire pathway but also forms a moderating effect in some form. These intriguing findings warrant further exploration in subsequent research. For the purpose of this study, our focus remains primarily on the concise relationship between concreteness and overall satisfaction.

In short, the surprising discovery is that among Chinese university students, when the ICT disciplines are categorised into two groups, namely concrete and abstract, the students tend to recommend disciplines from the concrete category to their peers based on their satisfaction with the subject. This integrated analysis reveals that the concrete category elicits higher satisfaction than the abstract category, suggesting that a higher level of integration requires increased concreteness. However, at the disintegrated level, the results align with the CLT, which states that abstract goals about the future elicit positive affective evaluation. This discovery, specifically among Chinese university students, has implications for both theory and practice, as the fit between integration and concreteness at the integrated level and the fit between disintegration and abstractness at the disintegrated level should be considered.

This study contributes to CLT in understanding student satisfaction with abstract and concrete disciplines in the ICT field. The study contributes to the existing literature by highlighting the role of psychological distance in shaping student satisfaction. It demonstrates that abstract disciplines in the ICT field, which are characterised by higher psychological distance, tend to induce greater student satisfaction. This finding aligns with CLT’s proposition that abstract concepts involve a more holistic, global, and abstract way of thinking, fostering intellectual exploration, depth of understanding, and cognitive flexibility. Moreover, the study reveals that abstract disciplines in the ICT field offer future-oriented promises, as students perceive them as preparing them for careers involving cutting-edge technologies and innovation. This future orientation adds to the satisfaction derived from abstract disciplines, as students see themselves contributing to the field’s evolution and envisioning potential societal impacts. Lastly, the study highlights the intellectual challenge posed by abstract disciplines, emphasising the role of higher-order thinking, analytical reasoning, and problem-solving. The intrinsic rewards associated with mastering complex ideas and developing intellectual capabilities contribute to overall satisfaction with the learning experience.

4.1 Policy implications

The specific policy implications of this discussion can be outlined as follows:

  • Curriculum design

    • Universities and educational institutions offering ICT programs should consider the balance between abstract and concrete learning experiences. Recognising the preference for concreteness at the integrated level and abstractness at the disintegrated level, curriculum designers can structure programs to provide a mix of practical, hands-on training in concrete disciplines and theoretical exploration in abstract disciplines.

  • Pedagogical approaches

    • Educators in the ICT field should adopt teaching strategies that promote higher-level construal, cognitive flexibility, and critical thinking skills. Encouraging students to think beyond specific details and make connections between abstract concepts fosters intellectual exploration, depth of understanding, and problem-solving abilities. Pedagogical approaches such as project-based learning, case studies, and collaborative problem-solving can facilitate this process.

  • Career development

    • To capitalise on the future-oriented promises of abstract disciplines, universities should provide students with opportunities to engage with cutting-edge technologies, industry partnerships, and research projects. Internships, industry collaborations, and career counselling services can help students align their career aspirations with the evolving demands of the ICT field. Emphasising the potential societal impacts and contributions that students can make through their chosen abstract disciplines can enhance motivation and satisfaction.

  • Support for intellectual challenges

    • Recognising the intellectually challenging nature of abstract disciplines, universities should provide academic support systems and resources to help students navigate these challenges. Promoting a growth mindset and celebrating students’ achievements in tackling abstract challenges can contribute to overall satisfaction with the learning experience.

  • Collaboration between academia and industry

    • Collaborative efforts between academia and industry can enhance the relevance of ICT education and ensure alignment with industry needs. Industry involvement in curriculum development, guest lectures, internships, and research collaborations can provide students with practical exposure and a better understanding of the real-world applications of abstract concepts. This collaboration can also help universities stay updated with emerging trends and technologies, further enhancing student satisfaction.

  • Continuous evaluation and feedback

    • Regular evaluation of student satisfaction levels, career outcomes, and learning experiences in concrete and abstract disciplines is crucial for universities to identify areas for improvement and make informed policy decisions. Collecting feedback from students, alumni, and employers can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of educational programs and enable universities to adapt and refine their offerings accordingly.