Abstract
Frequent body checking and avoidance are commonly related to psychopathologies; therefore, these behaviors are important to be investigated with appropriate measures. In this study, we investigated the factorial model for Body Checking and Avoidance Questionnaire (BCAQ) and used the structure with the best fit to the data to verify the frequency of body checking and avoidance among adult Brazilian respondents. A total of 1455 individuals completed both the BCAQ and a sociodemographic questionnaire. We evaluated this instrument through factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity, and we determined its reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the one-factor model did not fit our data for either female or male samples. Thus, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted, which uncovered the presence of five factors. This model had a good fit to data and was invariant across independent subsamples, but not across sexes. A model with five first-order factors and one second-order factor also had a good fit to data; therefore, its use is recommended to provide a general score for body checking and avoidance behaviors. The general BCAQ score showed a low frequency of body checking and avoidance behaviors among the participants. The BCAQ can gather important data of clinical and epidemiological benefit in the prevention of the psychopathologies, such as eating and obsessive–compulsive disorders.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Code Availability
Not applicable.
References
ABEP. (2020). Brazilian Economic Classification Criteria. 2020, from http://www.abep.org/criterio-brasil. Accessed 1 Nov 2020.
Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with Amos: Basic concepts, applications and programming. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Coelho, J. S., Zaitsoff, S. L., Pullmer, R., Yamin, D. F., Anderson, S., Fernandes, A., & Stewart, S. E. (2019). Body checking in pediatric eating and obsessive-compulsive disorders. JOCRD, 23(1), 100475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocrd.2019.100475
da Silva, W. R., Pimenta, F., Zaffaroni, L., Castelnuovo, G., Pietrabissa, G., Maroco, J., … Campos, J. A. D. B. (2019). Body Image Quality of Life Inventory: Cross-national study in college students from four different countries. Eat Weight Disord.https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-019-00732.
Dunn, T. J., Baguley, T., & Brunsden, V. (2014). From alpha to omega: A practicalsolution to the pervasive problem of internal consistency estimation. British Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12046
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. JMR, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312?uid=3737664&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21103223270061
Frederick, D. A., Kelly, M. C., Latner, J. D., Sandhu, G., & Tsong, Y. (2016). Body image and face image in Asian American and white women: Examining associations with surveillance, construal of self, perfectionism, and sociocultural pressures. Body Image, 16, 113–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.12.002
Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate data analysis. (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Eq Mod, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Kachani, A. T., Hochgraf, P. B., Brasiliano, S., Barbosa, A. L. R., Cordás, T. A., & Conti, M. A. (2011). Psychometric evaluation of the “Body Checking and Avoidance Questionnaire – BCAQ” adapted to Brazilian Portuguese. Eating and Weight Disorders, 16(4), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03327477
Kachani, A. T., Brasiliano, S., Cordás, T. A., & Hochgraf, P. B. (2013). Body checking and associated cognitions among Brazilian outpatients with eating disorders and nonpsychiatric controls. Body Image, 10(1), 127–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.10.006
Kachani, A. T., Barroso, L. P., Brasiliano, S., Hochgraf, P. B., & Cordás, T. A. (2014). Body checking and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in Brazilian outpatients with eating disorders. Eating and Weight Disorders, 19(2), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-014-0111-x
Lai, K., & Green, S. B. (2016). The problem with having two watches: Assessment of fit when RMSEA and CFI disagree. Multivariate Behav Res, 51(2–3), 220–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2015.1134306
Marôco, J. (2014). Análise de Equações Estruturais [Structural Equation Analysis]. (Vol. 2)ReportNumber.
Marôco, J. (2018). Análise Estatística com o SPSS Statistics [Statistical Analysis with SPSS Statistics]. (Vol. 7)ReportNumber.
Mountford, V., Haase, A., & Waller, G. (2006). Body checking in the eating disorders: Associations between cognitions and behaviors. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39(8), 708–715. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20279
Nikodijevic, A., Buck, K., Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M., de Paoli, T., & Krug, I. (2018). Body checking and body avoidance in eating disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Eating Disorders Review, 26(3), 159–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.2585
Pellizzer, M. L., Tiggemann, M., Waller, G., & Wade, T. D. (2018). Measures of body image: Confirmatory factor analysis and association with disordered eating. Psychological Assessment, 30(2), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000461
Shafran, R., Fairburn, C. G., Robinson, P., & Lask, B. (2004). Body checking and its avoidance in eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35(1), 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.10228
Shafran, R., Lee, M., Payne, E., & Fairburn, C. G. (2007). An experimental analysis of body checking. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(1), 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.01.015
Smith, J. M., Whisenhunt, B. L., Buchanan, E. M., & Hudson, D. L. (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of ecological momentary assessment and intervention targeting body checking behaviors. EDJTP, 27(6), 521–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/10640266.2018.156085
Stangier, U., Adam-Schwebe, S., Muller, T., & Wolter, M. (2008). Discrimination of facial appearance stimuli in body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(2), 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.117.2.435
Swami, V., & Barron, D. (2019). Translation and validation of body image instruments: Challenges, good practice guidelines, and reporting recommendations for test adaptation. Body Image, 31(1), 204–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.014
Tanck, J. A., Vocks, S., Riesselmann, B., & Waldorf, M. (2019). Gender differences in affective and evaluative responses to experimentally induced body checking of positively and negatively valenced body parts. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(1), 1058. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01058
Walker, D. C., & Murray, A. D. (2012). Body image behaviors: Checking, fixing, and avoiding. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance. (pp. 166–172). Elsevier.
Walker, D. C., Anderson, D. A., & Hildebrandt, T. (2009). Body checking behaviors in men. Body Image, 6(3), 164–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.05.001
Walker, D. C., Murray, A. D., Lavender, J. M., & Anderson, D. A. (2012). The direct effects of manipulating body checking in men. Body Image, 9(4), 462–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.06.001
Walker, D. C., White, E. K., & Srinivasan, V. J. (2018). A meta-analysis of the relationships between body checking, body image avoidance, body image dissatisfaction, mood, and disordered eating. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 51(8), 745–770. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22867
WHO. (2000). Obesity: Preventing and managing the global epidemic. World Health Organization: Technical Report Series. Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_894.pdf. Accessed 1 Nov 2020.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to São Paulo Research Foundation for the financial support.
Funding
This work was supported by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) under grant 2017/20315-7 and 2019/19590-9.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, and writing—original draft preparation.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the São Paulo State University, School of Dentistry (UNESP), in Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil (C.A.A.E.: 88600318.3.0000.5416).
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent for Publication
Not applicable.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
da Silva, W.R., Neves, A.N., Marôco, J. et al. A Psychometric Evaluation of the Body Checking and Avoidance Questionnaire Among Brazilian Adults. Trends in Psychol. 29, 519–533 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-021-00075-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-021-00075-1