Abstract
By definition, foster youth have unique histories that often include extreme deprivation. In this paper, we propose that this unique history may impact patterns of responding observed during behavioral preference assessments. We explore the interpretative possibility that preference assessments conducted with foster youth could reveal either proximal or distal susceptibilities to reinforcement as a social-behavioral marker of their histories. As an example of the former, foster youth may show indifference for tangible items, which may diminish the utility of preferences assessments and their related intervention outcomes. As an example of the latter, a lack of discerning preference among social consequences may increase the vulnerability of foster youth to exploitation by adults. As an exploratory first step into this line of inquiry, this paper presents a comparison between assessments conducted in clinical practice with foster youth and those published in standard behavioral outlets. We compared data sets for published (N = 25) and foster youth (N = 30) data sets with percentage selection as the dependent measure. Results indicate the number of graphs depicting a clear hierarchy was significantly lower for foster youth data sets, suggesting foster youth could be more likely to show preference indifference. We suggest future directions and considerations for using preference assessments with foster youth.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
Notes
Because data for the lowest-ranked item was not available for these data sets, Fig. 2 has an N of 20.
References
* The asterisk depicts inclusion as a data set in the empirical evaluation addressed in this manuscript.
*Andakyan, L., Fryling, M. J., & Benjamin, K. (2016). Further evaluation of the displacement of leisure items by food during stimulus preference assessments with children with autism. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 28(3), 461–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-016-9483-3
Baglivio, M. T., Epps, N., Swartz, K., Huq, M. S., Sheer, A., & Hardt, N. S. (2014). The prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACE) in the lives of juvenile offenders. Journal of Juvenile Justice, 3(2) Retrieved from http://www.journalofjuvjustice.org/JOJJ0302/article01.htm
Berzin, S. C., Rhodes, A. M., & Curtis, M. A. (2011). Housing experiences for former foster youth: How do the fare in comparison to other youth? Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 2119–2126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.06.018
*Bojak, S. L. & Carr, J. E. (1999). On the displacement of leisure items by food during multiple-stimulus preference assessments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(4), 515–518. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1999.32-515
Braciszewski, J. M., & Stout, R. L. (2012). Substance use among current and former foster youth: A systematic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 2337–2344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.08.011
*Brodhead, M. T., Abel, E. A., Al-Dubayan, M. N., Brouwers, L., Abston, G. W., & Rispoli, M. J. (2016a). An evaluation of a brief multiple-stimulus without replacement preference assessment conducted in an electronic pictorial format. Journal of Behavioral Education, 25(4), 417–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-016-9254-3
*Brodhead, M. T., Al-Dubayan, M. N., Mates, M., Abel, E. A., & Brouwers, L. (2016b). An evaluation of a brief video-based multiple-stimulus without replacement preference assessment. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(2), 160–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-015-0081-0
Bruskas, D. (2008). Children in foster care: A vulnerable population at risk. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 21, 70–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1.744-6171.2008.00134.x
*Call, N. A., Trosclair-Lasserre, N. M., Findley, A. J., Reavis, A. R., & Shillingsburg, M. A. (2012). Correspondence between single versus daily preference assessment outcomes and reinforcer efficacy under progressive-ratio schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45(4), 763–777. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2012.45-763
Campbell, F. A., & Ramey, C. T. (1995). Cognitive and school outcomes for high-risk African American students at middle adolescence: Positive effects of early intervention. American Educational Research Journal, 32(4), 743–772. https://doi.org/10.2307/1163334
*Carr, J. E., Nicolson, A. C., & Higbee, T. S. (2000). Evaluation of a brief multiple-stimulus preference assessment in a naturalistic context. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33(3), 353–357. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-353
Chambers, M. F., Saunders, A. M., New, B. D., Williams, C. L., & Stachurska, A. (2010). Assessment of children coming into care: Processes, pitfalls and partnerships. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15(4), 511–527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104510375932
Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2019). Foster care statistics 2017. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau.
*Ciccone, F. J., Graff, R. B., & Ahearn, W. H. (2007). Long-term stability of edible preferences in individuals with developmental disabilities. Behavioral Interventions, 22, 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.238
Clark, H. B., Crosland, K., Geller, D., Cripe, M., Kenney, T., Neff, B., et al. (2008). A functional approach to reducing runaway behavior and stabilizing placements for adolescents in foster care. Research in Social Work Practice, 18(5), 429–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731508314265
Cook, A., Blaustein, M., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. (2003). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network., 1–40 https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources/complex_trauma_in_children_and_adolescents.pdf
Crosland, K. A., Cigales, M., Dunlap, G., Neff, B., Clark, H. B., Giddings, T., & Blanco, A. (2008). Using staff training to decrease the use of restrictive procedures at two facilities for foster care children. Research on Social Work Practice, 18(5), 401–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731507314006
Dart, E. H., & Radley, K. C. (2017). The impact of ordinate scaling on the visual analysis of single-case data. Journal of School Psychology, 63, 105–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.03.008
*DeLeon, I. G., Iwata, B. A., & Roscoe, E. M. (1997). Displacement of leisure reinforcers by food during preference assessments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(3), 475–484. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1997.30-475
*DeLeon, I. G., Iwata, B. A., Conners, J., & Wallace, M. D. (1999). Examination of ambiguous stimulus preferences with duration-based measures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32(1), 111–114. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1999.32-111
Devought, K., & Cooper, H. (2012). Child welfare in the United States. State Policy Advocacy and Reform Center. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)93677-8
Dixon, M. R., & Falcomata, T. S. (2004). Preference for progressive delays and concurrent physical therapy exercise in an adult with acquired brain injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(1), 101–105. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2004.37-101
Durlak, J. A., & Wells, A. M. (1998). Evaluation of indicated preventive intervention (secondary prevention) mental health programs for children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(5), 775–802. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022162015815
*Fahmie, T. A., Iwata, B. A., & Jann, K. E. (2015). Comparison of edible and leisure reinforcers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48(2), 331–343. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.200
Font, S. A., Cancian, M., & Berger, L. M. (2019). Prevalence and risk factors for early motherhood among low-income, maltreated, and foster youth. Demography, 56(1), 261–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018-0744-x
Fritz, J. N., Roath, C. T., Shoemaker, P. T., Edwards, A. B., Hussein, L. A., Villante, N. K., Langlinais, C. A., & Rettig, L. A. (2020). Validity of the multiple-stimulus without replacement preference assessment for edible items. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(3), 1688–1701. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.703
Goemans, A., van Geel, M., & Vedder, P. (2015). Over three decades of longitudinal research on the development of foster children: A meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 42(1), 121–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.02.003
Gottschalk, J. M., Libby, M. E., & Graff, R. B. (2000). The effects of establishing operations on preference assessment outcomes. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33(1), 85–88. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-85
Hagopian, L. P., Rooker, G. W., & Zarcone, J. R. (2015). Delineating subtypes of self-injurious behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48(3), 523–543. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.236
*Hartman, E. C. & Klatt, K. P. (2005). The effects of deprivation, presession exposure, and preferences on teaching manding to children with Autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 21, 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393015
Holtschneider, C. (2021). But how homeless are you? Toward a more just and effective response to youth homelessness. Behavior and Social Issues, 30, 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-021-00053-3
Huntington, R., & Schwartz, I. (2022). A preliminary examination of social preference across assessors. Behavioral Interventions, 37(2), 556–566. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1858
Jones, L. (2019). Remaining in foster care after age 18 and youth outcomes at the transition to adulthood: A review. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 100(3), 260–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044389419847326
*Jones, B. A., Dozier, C. L., & Neidert, P. L. (2014). An evaluation of the effects of access duration on preference assessment outcomes. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47(1), 209–213. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.100
Jonson-Reid, M., Scott, L. D., McMillen, J. C., & Edmond, T. (2007). Dating violence among emancipating foster youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 29, 557–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2006.12.008
Kehoe, E. K., & Egan, J. (2019). Interpersonal attachment insecurity and emotional attachment to possessions partly mediate the relationship between childhood trauma and hoarding symptoms in a non-clinical sample. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 21, 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocrd.2018.12.001
Kelly, M. A., Roscoe, E. M., Hanley, G. P., & Schlichenmeyer, K. (2014). Evaluation of assessment methods for identifying social reinforcers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47, 113–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.107
*King, S. A. (2016). Multiple-stimulus without replacement preference assessment for students at risk for emotional disturbance. Journal of Behavioral Education, 25, 431–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-016-9256-1
Klatt, K. P., Sherman, J. A., & Sheldon, J. B. (2000). Effects of deprivation on engagement in preferred activities by persons with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33(4), 495–506. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-495
Lang, R., van der Werff, M., Verbeek, K., Didden, R., Davenport, K., Moore, M., Lee, A., Rispoli, M., Machalicek, W., O’Reilly, M., Sigafoos, J., & Lancioni, G. (2014). Comparison of high and low preferred topographies of contingent attention during discrete trial training. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8, 1279–1286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.012
Lewis, E. E., Dozier, M., Ackerman, J., & Sepulveda-Kozakowski, S. (2007). The effect of placement instability on adopted children’s inhibitory control abilities and oppositional behavior. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1415–1427. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1415
Linares, L. O., Montalto, D., Li, M., & Oza, V. S. (2006). A promising parenting intervention in foster care. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 32–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.1.32
Luna, O., Rapp, J. T., & Coon, J. C. (2020). Enhancing the lives of foster youth with behavioral interventions. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 67, 437–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2020.02.001
Manlove, J., Welti, K., McCoy-Roth, M., Berger, A., & Malm, K. (2011). Teen parents in foster care: Risk factors and outcomes for teens and their children. Clinical Trends, 28, 1–12 http://fosterreprohealth.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Manlove-et-al.-Teen-Parents-in-Foster-Care-Risk-Factors-and-Outcomes-for-Teens-and-Their-Children-Child-Trends-2011.pdf
McAdam, D. B., Klatt, K. P., Koffarnus, M., Dicesare, A., Solberg, K., Welch, C., & Murphy, S. (2005). The effects of establishing operations on preferences for tangible items. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38(1), 107–110. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2005.112-03
*McCord, B. E., Thomson, R. J., & Iwata, B. A. (2001). Functional analysis and treatment of self-injury associated with transitions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(2), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2001.34-195
McLay, L., Church, J., & Sutherland, D. (2016). Variables affective the emergence of untaught equivalence relations in children with and without autism. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 19(2), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.3109/17518423.2014.899649
*Moher, C. A., Gould, D. D., Hegg, E., & Mahoney, A. M. (2008). Non-generalized and generalized conditioned reinforcers: Establishment and validation. Behavioral Interventions, 23, 13–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.253
*Moore, J. W., Radley, K. C., Hart, E. H., Whipple, H. M., Ness, E. J., Murphy, A. N., Furlow, C., Wimberly, J. K., & Smith, A. (2017). The impact of stimulus presentation and size on preference. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 10, 172–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-016-0148-6
Morris, S. H., Jaffee, S. R., Goodwin, G. P., & Franklin, M. E. (2016). Hoarding in children and adolescents: A review. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 47, 740–750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0607-2
*Mueller, M. M. & Nkosi, A. (2007). State of the science in the assessment and management of severe behavior problems in school settings: Behavior analytic consultation to schools. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3, 176–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100798
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development. In J. P. Shonkoff & D. A. Phillips (Eds.), Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. National Academy Press.
Naumova, O. Y., Rychkov, S. Y., Kornilov, S. A., Odintsova, V. V., Anikina, V. О., Solodunova, M. Y., Arintcina, I. A., Zhukova, M. A., Ovchinnikova, I. V., Burenkova, O. V., Zhukova, O. V., Muhamedrahimov, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2019). Effects of early social deprivation on epigenetic statuses and adaptive behavior of young children: A study based on a cohort of institutionalized infants and toddlers. PloS One, 14(3), e0214285. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214285
Nelson, G., Westhues, A., & MacLeod, J. (2003). A meta-analysis of longitudinal research on preschool prevention programs for children. Prevention & Treatment, 6(1), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/1522-3736.6.0031a
Ninness, C., Yelick, A., Ninness, S. K., & Cordova, W. (2021). Predicting heuristic decisions in child welfare: A neural network exploration. Behavior and Social Issues, 30, 194–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-021-00047-1
Nowacki, K., & Schoelmerich, A. (2010). Growing up in foster families or institutions: Attachment representation and psychological adjustment of young adults. Attachment and Human Development, 12, 551–566. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2010.504547
Nuernberger, J. E., Smith, C. A., Czapar, K. N., & Klatt, K. P. (2012). Assessing preference for social interaction in children diagnosed with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 27, 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1336
*Ortiz, K. R. & Carr, J. E. (2000). Multiple-stimulus preference assessments: A comparison of free-operant and restricted-operant formats. Behavioral Interventions, 15, 345–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-078X(200010/12)15:4<345::AID-BIN69>3.0.CO;2-K
Pears, K., & Fisher, P. A. (2005). Developmental, cognitive, and neuropsychological functioning in preschool-aged foster children: Associations with prior maltreatment and placement history. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200504000-00006
*Raetz, P. B., LeBlanc, L. A., Baker, J. C., & Hilton, L. C. (2013). Utility of the multiple-stimulus without replacement procedure and stability of preferences of older adults with dementia. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(4), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.88
Ramsay-Irving, M. (2015). The foster care systems are failing foster children: The implications and practical solutions for better outcomes of youth in care. Canadian Journal of Family and Youth, 7(1), 55–86. https://doi.org/10.29173/cjfy24298
Rapp, J. T. (2005). An assessment of preference for caregivers and antecedents for problem behavior. Behavioral Interventions, 20, 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.195
*Reed, D. D., Luiselli, J. K., Magnuson, J. D., Fillers, S., Vieira, S., & Rue, H. C. (2009). A comparison between traditional economical and demand curve analysis of relative reinforcer efficacy in the validation of preference assessment predictions. Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 12(3), 164–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/17518420902858983
Resetar, J. L., & Noell, G. H. (2008). Evaluating preference assessments for use in the general education program. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41(3), 447–451. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2008.41-447
Rosales-Ruiz, J., & Baer, D. M. (1997). Behavioral cusps: A developmental and pragmatic concept for behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(3), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1997.30-533
Simmel, C. (2007). Risk and protective factors contributing to the longitudinal psychosocial well-being of adopted foster children. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 15(4), 237–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266070150040501
*Steinhilber, J. & Johnson, C. (2007). The effects of brief and extended stimulus availability on preference. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40(4), 767–772. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007/767-722
Stoutimore, M. R., Williams, C. E., Neff, B., & Foster, M. (2008). The Florida child welfare behavior analysis services program. Research on Social Work Practice, 18(5), 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731508318654
Tarren-Sweeney, M. (2010). Concordance of mental health impairment and service utilization among children in care. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15, 481–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104510376130
Tincani, M., & Travers, J. C. (2018). Publishing single-case experimental research studies that do not demonstrate experimental control. Remedial & Special Education, 39, 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932517697447
Tincani, M., & Travers, J. C. (2019). Replication research, publication bias, and applied behavior analysis. Perspectives on Behavior Science, 42, 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-019-00191-5
United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2019). Child maltreatment 2017. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/cb/cm2019.pdf
U.S. General Accounting Office. (1994). Foster care: Parental drug abuse has alarming impact on young children. US General Accounting Office. Publication GAO/HEHS-94-89.
Valdovinos, M. G., & Kennedy, C. H. (2004). A behavior-analytic conceptualization of the side effects of psychotropic medication. The Behavior Analyst, 27, 231–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393182
*Verriden, A. L. & Roscoe, E. M. (2016). A comparison of preference assessment methods. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 49(2), 265–285. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.302
*Waldvogel, J. M. & Dixon, M. R. (2008). Exploring the utility of preference assessments in organizational behavior management. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 28(1), 76–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/01608060802006831
Whitehouse, C. M., Vollmer, T. R., & Colbert, B. (2014). Evaluating the use of computerized stimulus preference assessments in foster care. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47(3), 470–484. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.148
Acknowledgments
We thank Alabama Department of Human Resources for funding to the third author. We also thank members of the Alabama Psychiatric Medication Review Team for their help collecting data.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Consent was obtained from the Alabama Department of Human Resources Family Services Division.
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all researchers, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Supplementary information
ESM 1
(DOCX 2780 kb)
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Peters, R.J., Richling, S.M., Rapp, J.T. et al. Could Preference Indifference be a Social Behavioral Marker for Foster Youth? A Potential Alternative use for Preference Assessments. Behav. Soc. Iss. 32, 7–22 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-023-00122-9
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-023-00122-9