Abstract
This technical paper outlines the shear strength characteristics of a new lightweight backfill material comprising bottom ash and tire granules of scrap tires through a series of large-scale direct shear tests. The proportions of rubber granules in the bottom ash–tire granule mixture varied between 0 and 40% with normal stresses ranging from 125 to 225 kPa. Furthermore, the interface shear strength characteristics of bottom ash–tire granule mix with uniaxial polyester geogrid of different aperture sizes are analysed. Test results on the unreinforced composite mix have shown that adding tire granules decreased the peak mobilized shear strength of the mix compared to pure bottom ash at higher normal stresses. The excessive volumetric strain of the composite mixtures with higher rubber content could be limited by the inclusion of geogrids. The geogrid reinforcement improved the interface shear strength of the composite mix with 40% tire granules up to 11% due to the frictional interlock and passive resistance offered by the geogrid when the mean grain size of the composite material is higher than the thickness of the transverse rib. The interaction coefficient of the reinforced bottom ash and bottom ash–tire granules mix varied between 0.90 and 1.1 at different normal stresses. Meanwhile, the effect of aperture size of geogrids was significant at lower normal stresses except for the composite mixture with 40% tire granules. Thus, the response of the unreinforced and geogrid reinforced bottom ash–tire granule mixture indicates the suitability of this mixture as a backfill material in reinforced retaining structures.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Bussiness Line (2021) Is it the beginning of end for India’s thermal power plants? The Hindu, New Delhi. https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blexplainer/is-it-the-beginning-of-end-for-indias-thermal-power-plants/article38025578.ecel
Vijayalakshmi SR, Krishna (2019) Income and vehicular growth in India: a time series econometric analysis. Institute for Social and Economic Change Bangalore, India
Shakya PR, Shrestha P, Tamrakar CS, Bhattarai PK (2008) Studies on potential emission of hazardous gases due to uncontrolled open-air burning of waste vehicle tyres and their possible impacts on the environment. Atmos Environ 42(26):6555–6559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.04.013
NCMA (2010) Design manual for segmental retaining walls. National Concrete Masonry Association, Herndon
Elias V, Christopher BR, Berg RR (2001) Mechanically stabilized earth walls and reinforced soil slopes: design and construction guidelines (updated version)
ASTM D 6270 (2020) Standard practice for use of scrap tires in civil engineering applications. American society for testing and materials, West Conshohocken
Attom MF (2006) The use of shredded waste tires to improve the geotechnical engineering properties of sands. Environ Geol 49(4):497–503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-0003-5
Bali Reddy S, Pradeep Kumar D, Murali Krishna A (2016) Evaluation of the optimum mixing ratio of a sand-tire chips mixture for geoengineering applications. J Mater Civ Eng 28(2):06015007. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001335
Foose GJ, Benson CH, Bosscher PJ (1996) Sand reinforced with shredded waste tires. J Geotech Eng 122(9):760–767. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1996)122:9(760)
Ghazavi M, Sakhi MA (2005) Influence of optimized tire shreds on shear strength parameters of sand. Int J Geomech 5(1):58–65. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1532-3641(2005)5:1(58)
Mashiri M, Vinod J, Sheikh MN, Tsang H-H (2015) Shear strength and dilatancy behaviour of sand–tyre chip mixtures. Soils Found 55(3):517–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.04.004
Zornberg JG, Cabral AR, Viratjandr C (2004) Behaviour of tire shred sand mixtures. Can Geotech J 41(2):227–241. https://doi.org/10.1139/T03-086
Edil TB, Bosscher PJ (1994) Engineering properties of tire chips and soil mixtures. Geotech Test J 17:453–453. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10306J
Boominathan A, Banerjee S (2019) Engineering properties of sand–rubber tire shred mixtures. Int J Geotech Eng 15(9):1061–1077. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2019.1617479
Noorzad R, Raveshi M (2017) Mechanical behavior of waste tire crumbs–sand mixtures determined by triaxial tests. Geotech Geol Eng 35(4):1793–1802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-017-0209-9
Anbazhagan P, Manohar D, Rohit D (2017) Influence of size of granulated rubber and tyre chips on the shear strength characteristics of sand–rubber mix. Geomech Geoengin 12(4):266–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/17486025.2016.1222454
Benjelloun M, Bouferra R, Ibouh H, Jamin F et al (2021) Mechanical behavior of sand mixed with rubber aggregates. Appl Sci 11(23):11395. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311395
Rouhanifar S, Afrazi M, Fakhimi A, Yazdani M (2021) Strength and deformation behaviour of sand-rubber mixture. Int J Geotech Eng 15(9):1078–1092. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2020.1812193
Anvari SM, Shooshpasha I, Kutanaei SS (2017) Effect of granulated rubber on shear strength of fine-grained sand. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 9(5):936–944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2017.03.008
Hazra S, Patra NR (2008) Performance of counterfort walls with reinforced granular and fly ash backfills: experimental investigation. Geotech Geol Eng 26(3):259–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-007-9162-3
Mekonnen A, Mandal J (2018) Model studies on bamboo-geogrid reinforced fly ash walls under uniformly distributed load. J Hazard Toxic Radioact 22(2):04017030. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000386
Pant A, Datta M, Ramana G (2019) Bottom ash as a backfill material in reinforced soil structures. Geotext Geomembr 47(4):514–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2019.01.018
Pant A, Datta M, Ramana GV, Mahanta A. (2019) Utilization of pond ash as structural fill material in reinforced soil structures. In: Geo-Congress 2019: Earth Retaining Structures and Geosynthetics. American Society of Civil Engineers Reston
Karnam Prabhakara BK, Guda PV, Balunaini U (2019) Optimum mixing ratio and shear strength of granulated rubber–fly ash mixtures. J Mater Civ Eng 31(4):04019018. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002639
Senthen Amuthan M, Boominathan A, Banerjee S (2018) Density and shear strength of particulate rubber mixed with sand and fly ash. J Mater Civ Eng 30(7):04018136. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002322
Palmeira EMM, George WE (1989) Large scale direct shear tests on reinforced soil. Soils Found 29(1):18–30. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.29.18
Balunaini U, Yoon S, Prezzi M, Salgado R (2014) Pullout response of uniaxial geogrid in tire shred–sand mixtures. Geotech Geol Eng 32(2):505–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-014-9731-1
Tanchaisawat T, Bergado D, Voottipruex P, Shehzad K (2010) Interaction between geogrid reinforcement and tire chip–sand lightweight backfill. Geotext Geomembr 28(1):119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2009.07.002
Tatlisoz N, Edil TB, Benson CH (1998) Interaction between reinforcing geosynthetics and soil-tire chip mixtures. J Geotech Geoenviron 124(11):1109–1119. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(1998)124:11(1109)
Bernal A, Salgado R, Swan R, Lovell C (1997) Interaction between tire shreds, rubber-sand and geosynthetics. Geosynth Int 4(6):623–643. https://doi.org/10.1680/gein.4.0108
Bandyopadhyay TS, Chakrabortty P, Hegde A (2022) Laboratory pullout testing of biaxial geogrid in sand-crumb rubber mixtures. IJCI 5:43–50. https://doi.org/10.11159/ijci.2022.007
Prabhakara BKK, Guda PV, Balunaini U (2020) Interface shear stress properties of geogrids with mixtures of fly ash and granulated rubber. J Mater Civ Eng 32(12):06020020. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003496
Li W, Kwok C, Sandeep C, Senetakis K (2019) Sand type effect on the behaviour of sand-granulated rubber mixtures: Integrated study from micro-to macro-scales. Powder Technol 342:907–916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2018.10.025
IS 2386 (part3) (1963) Methods of test for aggregates for concrete: Part 3 Specific gravity, density, voids, absorption and bulking. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
IS 1498:1970(R2007) Classification and identification of soils for general engineering purposes. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
IS 2720–26:1987(R2002) Method of Test for Soil: Determination of pH value. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
ASTM D 6637 (2015) Standard Test Method for Determining Tensile Properties of Geogrids by the Single or Multi-Rib Tensile Method. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken
Nightingale DE, Green WP (1997) An unresolved riddle: tire chips, two roadbeds, and spontaneous reactions. Testing soil mixed with waste or recycled materials. ASTM International
IS 2720–14 (1983) Methods Of Test For Soils: Determination of Density Index (Relative Density) of Cohesionless Soils. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
ASTM D 5321 (2014) Standard test method for determining the shear strength of soil-geosynthetic and geosynthetic-geosynthetic interfaces by direct shear. American society for testing and materials, West Conshohocken
Liu C-N, Ho Y-H, Huang J-W (2009) Large scale direct shear tests of soil/PET-yarn geogrid interfaces. Geotext Geomembr 27(1):19–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2008.03.002
Makkar FM, Chandrakaran S, Sankar N (2019) Experimental investigation of response of different granular soil–3D geogrid interfaces using large-scale direct shear tests. J Mater Civ Eng 31(4):04019012. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002645
Suddeepong A, Sari N, Horpibulsuk S, Chinkulkijniwat A et al (2020) Interface shear behaviours between recycled concrete aggregate and geogrids for pavement applications. Int J Pavement Eng 21(2):228–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2018.1453609
Sridharan A, Pandian N, Srinivasa Rao P (1998) Shear strength characteristics of some Indian fly ashes. Proc Inst Civ Eng-Ground Improv 2(3):141–146. https://doi.org/10.1680/gi.1998.020304
Banzibaganye G (2014) Investigation into the use of waste tyre shreds for reinforcement of sandy soils in South Africa. Dissertation, University of Cape Town
Lee C, Truong QH, Lee W, Lee J-S (2010) Characteristics of rubber-sand particle mixtures according to size ratio. J Mater Civ Eng 22(4):323–331. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000027
Chen J-N, Ren X, Xu H, Zhang C et al (2022) Effects of grain size and moisture content on the strength of geogrid-reinforced sand in direct shear mode. Int J Geomech 22(4):04022006. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0002309
Liu C-N, Zornberg JG, Chen T-C, Ho Y-H et al (2009) Behavior of geogrid-sand interface in direct shear mode. J Geotech Geoenviron 135(12):1863. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000150
Han B, Ling J, Shu X, Gong H et al (2018) Laboratory investigation of particle size effects on the shear behavior of aggregate-geogrid interface. Constr Build Mater 158:1015–1025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.10.045
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
KS, RMV and NS have conceived the present idea and designed the analysis. KS has carried out the experiments and analysed the data to draft the manuscript. RMV and NS provided critical feedback to shape the final version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Shireen, K., Varghese, R.M. & Sankar, N. Shear Strength Characteristics of Bottom Ash–Rubber Mixture Reinforced with Geogrids. Int. J. of Geosynth. and Ground Eng. 9, 7 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40891-023-00426-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40891-023-00426-1