Abstract
Objectives
Mass shooters, violent extremists, and terrorists, who are overwhelmingly male, exhibit misogynistic attitudes and a history of violence against women. Over the past few years, incels (“involuntary celibates”) have gathered in online communities to discuss their frustration with sexual/romantic rejection, espouse male supremacist attitudes, and justify violence against women and men who are more popular with women. Despite the link between misogyny and mass violence, and the recent emergence of online misogynistic extremism, theories and empirical research on misogynistic extremism remain scarce. This article fills this gap.
Methods
An integration of literatures pertaining to the basics of sexual selection, evolved male psychology, and aggression suggests there are three major areas that should be considered imperative in understanding the emergence of misogynistic extremism.
Results
Individual factors (e.g., low status) and social forces, such as a high degree of status inequality, female empowerment, and the ease of coordination through social media, give rise to misogynistic extremism.
Conclusions
The unique interaction between evolved male psychology, the dynamics of the sexual marketplace, and modern technologies can create an ecology in which incel beliefs can thrive and make violence attractive.
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Data Availability
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Notes
I focus on the incel community because it openly embraces male supremacist ideology, hatred of the feminist movement, and the perceived entitlement to sex from women (Silva, Capellan, Schmuhl, & Mills, 2021).
It is important to note that while there are individuals who identify as incels express so-called “blackpilled” beliefs (i.e., extreme and negative views about themselves, women, relationships, and society as a whole), not all incels share or embrace these extreme views. Many individuals who identify as incels and who are struggling with frustration in their sexual and romantic lives are not violent. This is reflected in online fora, where only a small subset of Incel forum users, about 10%, are responsible for most of the hateful content (Jaki et al., 2019). While this paper explains the emergence of the incel movement, it largely focuses on incels who express deep-seated resentment, anger, and frustration.
I use the term ‘misogynistic extremism’ (rather than ‘misogynistic terrorism’) for two reasons. First, misogynist terrorism emphasizes violent attacks, which constitute but one of the various behavioral strategies that men use to for intimidation. Second, misogynistic extremism acknowledges the organized nature of the movement and the extremist gradient along which its members position themselves. It is worth noting that members of the incel community frequently rationalize their claims about their ‘fate’ in the sexual marketplace with explicit reference to evolutionary psychological perspectives and posit that a fundamental understanding of evolutionary psychology is required to navigate the world and the sexual marketplace (Ging, 2019). However, the incel community’s preoccupation with evolutionary psychology does not compromise the value of evolutionary psychology in explaining the movement’s grievances.
On this account, men have an evolutionary incentive to exploit women sexually (by pressure, coercion, or outright rape) because it directly increases their reproductive success. Separately, men want to control women’s sexuality to prevent them from unknowingly expanding parental efforts into rival men’s offspring with the women they invest in (Wilson & Daly, 1992). These are very different: we can think of the first motive as lust and the second as jealousy. With incels, the first drive is the operative one – incels are not obsessed with women’s chastity, propriety, modesty, etc., but with their availability to them. It is not that they are proprietary, i.e., insisting that no other man sleep with the women they want to sleep with; they just want some woman to sleep with them in the first place.
This is not to say that sexual coercion and aggression against women are fixed features of male psychology: male aggressive coercion of women is rare in some societies, and even in societies where male aggression toward women is common, some men do not aggress against women at all (Counts, Brown, & Campbell, 2019).
Differences in the importance of physical attractiveness might be related to additional factors, such as the fact that only females can invest physiologically in offspring and that their ability to do this is strongly tied to age, body fat accumulation and distribution. Hence, the selection for male preferences for indicators of physiological investment capacity might have favored preferences for physical appearance. In line with this, men lower their standards for physical attractiveness in short-term mating contexts (e.g., for sexual partners), suggesting that men’s preferences for attractiveness are not tied to their preferences for short-term mating (Kenrick, Sadalla, Groth, & Trost, 1990).
Female involuntary celibates are known as ‘femcels’ and, like their male counterparts, gather in online fora (e.g., on the subreddits r/TruFemcels, which was banned in mid-2020, and r/vindicta). Femcels ascribe their exclusion from the sexual marketplace to a blend of misogyny and lookism, lamenting the perception that “high-tier” women monopolize male attention, thereby denying unattractive women romantic experiences and social benefits (Kay, 2021). Femcels often make the deliberate choice to withhold sex from men, which is seen as an act of protest against patriarchal structures and oppressive beauty standards. Scholarship on femcels remains in its nascence (Ling, 2022).
Of course, incels could fantasize about being the beneficiary of polygyny, such as having a harem (or at least multiple women to choose from), but if there is any realism to incels’ reveries, monogamy should be their top choice.
In a monogamous mating marketplace, these contradictory trends in female empowered societies—fewer women willing to be married, more women willing to have casual sex—predict that there will be more unhappy bachelors wanting wives, but fewer unhappy celibate men wanting sex partners. De facto polygyny changes this because sexually active women are pursuing only the most desirable men.
Bumble is considered a bit classier than Tinder because it attracts a user base of people with high standards and ideals, which has contributed to its reputation as more than a hookup option. Based on sex differences in short- and long-term mating strategies, women might find this outlook more appealing.
Super-likes indicate that a user is really interested in a potential match. A match will see that someone liked them before they make the decision to accept or reject the person who super-liked them. Users on Tinder receive one free super-like per day (otherwise, they must purchase them), making super-likes a commodity.
For example, in 2017, Reddit banned the incel subreddit for repeatedly violating the website’s terms on violent incitement. Another subreddit (r/Braincels), albeit more heavily moderated, was banned in September 2019 (Hoffman et al., 2020).
To denote the equivalent of Chad in different ethnicities, members refer to Tyrone (Black Chad), Chang (East Asian Chad), Chadpreet (Indian), and Chaddam (Middle Eastern Chad).
These findings suggest that, in part, increased mating success might be due to factors other than attractiveness to females.
To evolutionary psychologists, this “double-standard” reflects objective mate value: A high-quality woman can afford to be choosy, with the implication that promiscuous women are lower quality. In contrast, a promiscuous man is likely to be considered high-quality – otherwise, women would not sleep with him.
In this study, “involuntary celibates” denotes people (both men and women) without any sexual relationships, not members of the incel community.
Lawmakers are concerned that East Asian countries might become a breeding ground for incel-like movements, as several countries are monitoring a disturbing trend of misogynistic attacks referred to as “semen terrorism” - referring to the act of ejaculating (urinating) on women’s possessions, sometimes in response to sexual and romantic rejection (Middleton, 2021; Teh, 2021).
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I want to thank my mentor, Steven Pinker, for his feedback, ideas, and intellectual support of this work.
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Lindner, M. The Sense in Senseless Violence: Male Reproductive Strategy and the Modern Sexual Marketplace as Contributors to Violent Extremism. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology 9, 217–251 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-023-00219-w
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-023-00219-w