The COVID-19 pandemic has presented unprecedented challenges across the globe, affecting individuals, families, communities, and societies at large. There has been widespread concern, both at the onset of the pandemic and continuing to the present, about the profound impact on children and adolescents, whose developmental paths and well-being may have been significantly shaped by the complex disruptions brought about by the pandemic. To address this concern, this special issue delves into the intricate interplay of trauma and resilience in children and adolescents amid the COVID-19 pandemic. By identifying key risk and protective factors, this special issue endeavours to inform policymakers and practitioners on strategies aimed at enhancing the well-being of young individuals amidst ongoing challenges. Additionally, it seeks to derive valuable lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic to better prepare for and respond to potential future global adversities.

To that end, the collection of studies within this special issue has revealed diverse facets of the experiences and well-being of children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic and highlighted factors in shaping these experiences, leading to several noteworthy conclusions, outlined below.

Varied Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Resilience Evident in Children and Adolescents

Studies included in this issue support the idea that a significant proportion of children and young people demonstrated adaptive responses to the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. For instance, Hébert et al. (2022), Ionio et al. (2022) and Nearchou (2022) examined the impact of COVID-19 on young people in Quebec, Canada (age 14–25), Italy (age 12–23) and the Republic of Ireland (age 17–25), respectively. Their findings uncover a nuanced picture. While it’s true that approximately 30% grappled with severe psychological distress and roughly 20–35% exhibited signs indicative of PTSD, the predominant narrative diverges from a solely negative outlook. These studies also show that a significant portion of respondents did not succumb to such adverse mental health effects. Instead, they demonstrated remarkable resilience, with nearly 70% showcasing post-traumatic growth (Hébert et al., 2022). These individuals recalibrated their life priorities, unearthed newfound inner resilience, and fostered deeper connections with others. Moreover, some of the young people recognized the pandemic’s silver lining, citing effective coping mechanisms such as nurturing social bonds and engaging in allowable leisure pursuits and physical activity during lockdowns. It is essential to acknowledge the plight of the 30% adversely impacted by the pandemic, but it is equally vital to dispel the notion of a uniformly catastrophic mental health fallout. This perspective enables us to direct our attention towards identifying and supporting those most vulnerable and in need of assistance.

Aligning with this idea, is a qualitative study in this issue examining the impact of the initial six months of the pandemic on older youth transitioning in and out of foster care in the USA, potentially a particularly vulnerable demographic (Greeson et al., 2022). They found that despite each participant (n = 26, age 18-23) reporting at least one mental health challenge, including loneliness, anxiety, depression, and worry, most of these young individuals demonstrated adeptness in employing adaptive coping mechanisms and resilience strategies to counteract these adversities. Only a minority resorted to unhealthy coping behaviours, such as overeating or excessive online shopping. This underscores the resilience and resourcefulness demonstrated by numerous individuals within this potentially vulnerable population, emphasizing the significance of recognizing and bolstering their adaptive strategies amid adversities. Moreover, this finding underscores a crucial point, feelings of anxiety or low mood, while prevalent, may not necessarily indicate clinical pathology. Instead, they may represent normal and appropriate responses to the magnitude of a global challenge like the pandemic.

Kirkham et al. (2022) also challenge the widespread assumption of a universal decline in adolescent mental health during the pandemic. Focusing on Scottish school pupils aged 12 to 17, their study explores the nuanced impact of COVID-19 on mental well-being. They examined the relationship between bullying, well-being, and perceived stress levels across three distinct time points since the onset of the UK’s initial national lockdown in March 2020. Their findings indicated that young people who had experienced bullying prior to lockdown, experienced a reduction in perceived stress during lockdown, unlike non-bullied individuals who showed no significant changes. These findings highlight the diverse effects of COVID-19, suggesting potential positive shifts in mental health dynamics during the lockdown period, particularly for bullied individuals who were no longer exposed to the school environment where they experienced most bullying.

In sharp contrast, certain individuals, notably adolescents with a history of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), encountered heightened susceptibility to the adverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Verlenden et al. (2022) ran a longitudinal study focusing on the impact of COVID-19 on young people aged 13–19 in the USA. Their research highlighted how childhood adversity exacerbated vulnerability to depression during the pandemic, with females in their study reporting elevated rates of ACEs, pandemic-related stress, and depressive symptoms compared to males. This underscores the need for approaches that not only address the immediate challenges presented by the pandemic, but also address underlying trauma and provide sustained support to these vulnerable individuals.

Impact of Caregiver Relationships and Contextual Factors on Children and Adolescent Resilience During COVID-19

Several studies in this special issue have demonstrated the important influence of individual and contextual factors among parents or caregivers in moderating the negative effects of the pandemic on children and adolescents. Nearchou (2022) investigated the role of resilience and posttraumatic stress related to COVID-19 in predicting self-harm among young people, emphasizing the importance of caregiver resilience as a protective factor. Arowolo et al.‘s (2023) systematic review revealed that parental ACEs significantly influenced their responses to the COVID-19 pandemic, which adversely affected the well-being of their children. Parents with high ACE scores in their study were found to exhibit poorer coping skills and engage in negative parenting practices, which contributed to increased behavioural and emotional problems in their children during the pandemic. Worryingly, parents with high ACE scores were more likely to cope poorly with childcare duties and engage in child neglect, verbal abuse, and reduced feeding frequency, specifically during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Sheding light on the experiences of parenting pre-teens in rural communities amidst the COVID-19 pandemic Oerther and Oerther (2022), illuminated the array of challenges encountered by parents and the strategies they employed to navigate disruptions. Notably, most of the interviewed parents exhibited remarkable adaptability and resilience in addressing these challenges, while simultaneously supporting and nurturing their children. This is in spite of COVID-19 quarantine often disrupting parents’ relationships with their pre-teen children, underscoring the pressure parents faced in managing a new family dynamic with limited support and often conflicting or absent advice. This study and the work of Nearchou (2022) and Arowolo (2023) serve as a poignant reminder that to safeguard the well-being of children and young people, it is imperative to provide effective support to caregivers, increase their resilience and family functioning.

In support of this, in their qualitative systematic review, Yates and Mantler (2023) examined caregiver and child resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic, underscoring the relationship between children’s ability to cope positively and resilience in the context of family functioning. Their findings highlighted that children with higher resilience levels were more adept at mitigating negative outcomes throughout the pandemic, including instances of stress-related behaviours, negative emotional symptoms, and challenges in peer relationships. Moreover, they found that family functioning during the pandemic was contingent upon factors such as positive coping mechanisms, the quality of caregiver-child relationships, and overall family resilience. Importantly, the review also brought attention to the impact of the pandemic on the Socio-Economic Status (SES) of many families. SES can play a significant role in shaping caregiver and child resilience during the pandemic, with families facing socioeconomic challenges experiencing greater difficulties in coping with pandemic-related stressors, with Yates and Mantler (2023) showing that the perceived severity of this impact varied, was influenced by the resilience demonstrated by caregivers.

Health Behaviours, Coping Strategies and Interventions

Positive key factors that encouraged and resulted in resilience were found, such as supportive relationships, adaptive coping skills, and access to social, environmental, and institutional support. These played crucial roles in mitigating the impact of the pandemic on the mental health of children and adolescents. Youth who demonstrate resilience by utilizing these strategies were found to be better equipped to cope with pandemic-related stressors (Greeson et al., 2022; Hébert et al., 2022).

Health behaviours were also key to protect well-being. Ho (2023) examined the relationship between COVID-19 fear, sleep quality, anxiety, and depression in Vietnamese adolescents. The study revealed that anxiety played a mediating role between fear of COVID-19 and depression among adolescents in Vietnam, with sleep quality moderating this relationship.

Greeson et al. (2022) focused on the resilience and mental health of older youth in foster care, highlighting the significance of supportive relationships and adaptive coping skills in mitigating pandemic-related challenges. Children and young people ability to engage in coping strategies was key in modulating the impact of COVID-19 on their well-being. Hébert et al. (2022) presented a mixed-method analysis of youth coping strategies during the initial wave of the pandemic, highlighting the prevalence of psychological distress and the effectiveness of various coping mechanisms, such as maintaining social connects, and the opportunity to spend more time with people they lived with. Ionio et al. (2022) explored the traumatic impact of COVID-19 on adolescents and young adults, with a particular focus on emotional regulation skills and their association with pandemic-related experiences, with better emotional regulation skills being associated with better well-being. And Rueda et al. (2023) evaluated the effectiveness of a youth resiliency-building program, “Mind Matters,” among Hispanic adolescents, showcasing its positive impact on stress management and resilience enhancement during the pandemic.

Rueda et al.‘s (2023) study addressed the impact of poverty and the COVID-19 pandemic on youth, particularly Hispanic communities, who face heightened levels of trauma. To meet the need for resilience-building programs in urban, impoverished areas with large Hispanic populations, the researchers conducted a formative evaluation of a youth intervention called Mind Matters with a small group of Hispanic adolescents, aged 11–18 years old in highly improvised areas of the USA, characterized by low education attainment, high crime, negative health, and adverse family trends. Further, just following the delivery of the program, the pandemic targeted this community with one of the highest rates of COVID-19-related deaths. The program aimed to help youth overcome adversity and build resilience through psychoeducation and skill development. Participants engaged in the program just before the pandemic, and subsequent focus groups and follow-up interviews revealed positive feedback. Youth reported enjoying the program and found it helpful in coping with stress across various life contexts. The study suggests that the program was particularly beneficial for older adolescents. Even during the pandemic, youth continued to use the skills learned, such as self-soothing and mindfulness, to regulate their emotions while facing challenges like home schooling. Findings that underscore the importance of trauma-resilience programs for youth.

Concerning Trends in the Mental Health of Young People: Insights Beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic

The mental health of young people is a significant concern irrespective of the COVID-19 pandemic. Nearchou (2022) found that over 50% of surveyed population (aged 17–25) displayed distressing behaviours. Specifically, 45% engaged in self-harm without suicidal intent, with an additional 18% reporting suicidal intent. It is crucial to note that the high prevalence of self-harm may not be directly linked to COVID-19, as similar levels were reported prior to the pandemic. This underscores the complexity of mental health issues among young people and highlights the need to address underlying factors that extend beyond the immediate impact of the pandemic.

Conclusion

The studies featured in this special issue provide a nuanced understanding of the intricate impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health and well-being of children, adolescents, and young people. They also shed light on the factors influencing their resilience and coping strategies amidst adversity. What we have learned from COVID-19 can guide us in addressing future adversities and ongoing challenges faced by children and young people globally. Contrary to the widespread belief, these findings challenge the notion that the pandemic led to a universal decline in children and adolescent mental health. Instead, they reveal that specific groups of individuals were disproportionately affected. Thus, contrary to the widespread belief at the onset of the pandemic and still largely prevailing, the evidence does not support the notion that COVID-19 universally resulted in harm and trauma to all children and adolescents.

Attributing a universal negative impact of COVID-19 on all children and adolescents can establish a harmful self-fulfilling prophecy. This could lead individuals to adopt behaviours that align with these expectations, regardless of their validity. Further, assuming universal negative effects without considering individual differences may result in overlooking the diverse experiences and resilience of individuals. This oversight risks misallocation of resources and inadequate support for children and adolescents who require it most, resulting in missed opportunities for targeted assistance and resource allocation, exacerbating challenges for vulnerable populations and hindering effective and correctly targeted response efforts.