Abstract
Traumatic events during childhood are crucial to consider when addressing children’s social and emotional development, as childhood trauma is associated with negative impacts, including academic achievement. Additionally, positive classroom environments and teachers’ trauma-informed attitudes and behavior play a role in supporting recovery from children’s trauma-related experiences. Aspire, Connect, Thrive (ACT) is a trauma-informed school-based intervention that examined students’ Social Emotional Competence (SEC) and resilience for K-8th grade students in a disadvantaged, urban elementary school in Connecticut contending with the effects of students’ exposure to trauma. The present study examines the experience of ACT teachers who received professional development and subsequently implemented learned content in the classroom (N = 17; 70.6% female, mean age = 44 years; 47.1% racial/ethnic minority; mean years teaching = 15.6) through qualitative evidence of trauma sensitivity (observed and self-reported) and clinician-ratings of teachers’ positive classroom environment. Quantitative results indicate significant change over time in teachers’ attitudes and trauma-informed classroom responses. Interview themes suggest (1) teachers learned from and implemented the intervention content in their classrooms dependent upon the support the teacher was given, (2) teachers’ perspectives on the connections between the student-teacher relationship and trauma-informed attitudes or practices influenced teacher behavior, and (3) teachers’ own emotions and experiences implementing trauma-informed practices were key to classroom management.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aarons, G. A., Ehrhart, M. G., Farahnak, L. R., & Sklar, M. (2014). The role of leadership in creating a strategic climate for evidence-based practice implementation and sustainment in systems and organizations. Frontiers in Public Health Services and Systems Research, 3(4), 3. https://doi.org/10.13023/FPHSSR.0304.03.
Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2000). Burnout contagion processes among teachers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 2289–2308.
Bergen, N., & Labonté, R. (2020). Everything is perfect, and we have no problems: Detecting and limiting social desirability bias in qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 30(5), 783–792. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732319889354.
Blazer, D., & Kraft, M. A. (2017). Teacher and Teaching effects on students’ attitudes and behaviors. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39, 146–170.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
Brimhall, K. C., Fenwick, K., Farahnak, L. R., Hurlburt, M. S., Roesch, S. C., & Aarons, G. A. (2016). Leadership, organizational climate, and perceived burden of evidence-based practice in mental health services. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 43(5), 629–639. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-015-0670-9.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Harvard University Press.
Chang, M. (2009). An appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-009-9106-y.
Cole, S. F., O’Brien, J. G., Gadd, M. G., Ristuccia, J., Wallace, D. L., & Gregory, M. (2005). Helping traumatized children learn. Advocates for Children.
Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). (2013). Effective social and emotional learning programs. Author.
Crosby, S. D. (2015). An ecological perspective on emerging trauma-informed Teaching practices. Children and Schools, 37, 223–230.
Crosby, S., Somers, C., Day, A., & Baroni, B. (2016). Working with traumatized students: A preliminary study of measures to assess school staff perceptions, awareness, and instructional responses. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 8, 59–70. https://doi.org/10.19157/JTSP.issue.08.01.08.
Crosby, S. D., Howell, P., & Thomas, S. (2018). Social Justice education through trauma-informed teaching. Middle School Journal, 49, 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00940771.2018.1488470.
Day, A., Somers, C., Baroni, B., West, S., Sanders, L., & Peterson, C. (2015). Evaluation of a trauma-informed school intervention with girls in a residential facility school: Student perceptions of school environment. Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma, 24, 1086–1105. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2015.1079279.
Djonko-Moore, C. M. (2016). An exploration of teacher attrition and mobility in high poverty racially segregated schools. Race Ethnicity and Education, 19, 1063–1087. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2015.1013458.
Dods, J. (2013). Enhancing understanding of the nature of supportive School-Based relationships for Youth who have experienced trauma. Canadian Journal of Education, 36, 71–95.
DOI: 10.1177/0829573516685017.
Domitrovich, C. E., Durlak, J. A., Staley, K. C., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Social-Emotional competence: An essential factor for promoting positive Adjustment in School Children. Child Development, 88, 408–416.
Dorado, J. S., Martinez, M., McArthur, L. E., & Leibovitz, T. (2016). Healthy environments and response to trauma in schools (HEARTS): A whole-school, multi-level, prevention and intervention program for creating trauma-informed, safe and supportive schools. School Mental Health, 8(1), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9177-0.
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to Violence, crime, and abuse: Results from the national survey of children’s exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(8), 746–754.
Ganzel, B. L., & Morris, P. A. (2011). Allostasis and the developing human brain: Explicit consideration of implicit models. Development and Psychopathology, 23(4), 955–974. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000447
Guba, E. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Educational Communication and Technology: A Journal of Theory Research and Development, 29, 75–91.
Guest, G., MacQueen, K., & Namey, E. (2012). Applied thematic analysis. SAGE Publications.
Hagenauer, G., Hascher, T., & Violet, S. E. (2015). Teacher emotions in the classroom: Associations with students’ engagement, classroom discipline and the interpersonal teacher-student relationship. European Journal of Psychological Education, 30, 385–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-015-0250-0.
Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early Teacher-Child relationships and the trajectory of children’s School outcomes through Eighth Grade. Child Development, 72(2), 625–638. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00301.
Hart, S. C., & DiPerna, J. C. (2017). Teacher beliefs and responses toward Student Misbehavior: Influence of cognitive skill deficits. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 33, 1–15.
Hickey, G., Mcgilloway, S., O’Brien, M., Leckey, Y., Devlin, M., & Donnelly, M. (2018). Strengthening stakeholder buy-in and engagement for successful exploration and installation: A case study of the development of an area-wide, evidence-based prevention and early intervention strategy. Children and Youth Services Review, 91, 185–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.008.
Hopper, E. K., Bassuk, E. L., & Olivet, J. (2010). Shelter from the Storm: Trauma-informed care in homeless service settings. The Open Health Services and Policy Journal, 3, 80–100.
Hunt, T. K., Slack, K. S., & Berger, L. M. (2017). Adverse childhood experiences and behavioral problems in middle childhood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 67, 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.11.005.
Hutchison, M., Russell, B. S., & Wink, M. (2020). Social-emotional competence trajectories from a school based child trauma symptom intervention in a disadvantaged community. Psychology in the Schools, 57, 1257–1272. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22388.
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to Student and Classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79, 491–525.
Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 112–133.
Koenig, A., Rodger, S., & Specht, J. (2018). Educator burnout and compassion fatigue: A pilot study. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 33, 259–278.
Konishi, C., Hymel, S., Zumbo, B. D., & Li, Z. (2010). Do school bullying and Student—Teacher relationships Matter for Academic Achievement? A Multilevel Analysis. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 25, 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573509357550.
Koslouski, J. B. (2022). Developing empathy and support for students with the “most challenging behaviors”: Mixed-methods outcomes of professional development in trauma-informed teaching practices. Frontiers in Education, 7, 1005887. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.1005887
Koslouski, J. B., & Stark, K. (2021). Promoting learning for students experiencing adversity and trauma: The everyday, yet profound, actions of teachers. The Elementary School Journal, 121(3), 430–453. https://doi.org/10.1086/712606.
Krop, J. (2013). Caring without tiring. Education Canada, 53, 42.
Laceulle, O. M., Rentfrow, J., Lamb, M. E., & Alisic, E. (2019). General risk or individual vulnerability? Individual differences in young adults’ health risk behaviour after childhood trauma. Personality and Individual Differences, 142, 288–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.09.017.
Larson, Cook, C. R., Fiat, A., & Lyon, A. R. (2018). Stressed teachers don’t make good implementers: Examining the interplay between stress reduction and intervention fidelity. School Mental Health, 10(1), 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-9250-y.
Levine Brown, E., Phillippo, K., Weston, K., & Rodger, S. (2019). United States and Canada pre-service teacher certification standards for student mental health: A comparative case study. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 80(1), 71–82.
Maring, E. F., & Koblinsky, S. A. (2013). Teachers’ challenges, strategies, and support needs in schools affected by community Violence: A qualitative study. Journal of School Health, 83, 379–388.
McIntyre, E. M., Baker, C. N., Overstreet, S., & New Orleans Trauma-Informed Schools Learning Collaborative. (2019). Evaluating foundational professional development training for trauma-informed approaches in schools. Psychological Services, 16(1), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000312.
McLaughlin, K. A., Koenen, K. C., Hill, E. D., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2013). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(8), 815–830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.011.
Meredith, C., Schaufeli, W., Struyve, C., Gielen, S., & Kyndt, E. (2020). Burnout contagion’ among teachers: A social network approach. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 93, 328–352.
Midwest, P. B. I. S., & Network (2020). Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports Classroom Management Practices Observation Tool. Available: http://www.midwestpbis.org/materials/classroom-practices.
National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (n.d.a). About child trauma. https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/about-child-trauma.
Nederhof, A. J. (1985). Methods of coping with social desirability bias: A review. European Journal of Social Psychology, 15(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420150303.
Oehlberg, B. (2008). Why schools need to be trauma-informed. Trauma and Loss: Research and Interventions, 8(2), 1–4. Retrieved from https://www.starr.org/sites/default/files/articles/whyschoolsneed.pdf.
Orchard Place/Child Guidance Center’s Trauma Informed Care Project (2020). New Orleans Trauma-Informed Schools Environmental Scan Checklist. Available: http://traumatransformed.org/wp-content/uploads/tia_orchard.pdf.
Ormiston, H. E., Nygaard, M. A., & Apgar, S. (2022). A systematic review of secondary traumatic stress and compassion fatigue in teachers. School Mental Health, 14(4), 802–817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-022-09525-2
Overstreet, S., & Chafouleas, S. M. (2016). Trauma-informed schools: Introduction to the Special Issue. School Mental Health, 8, 1–6.
Perfect, M. M., Turley, M. R., Carlson, J. S., Yohanna, J., & Saint Gilles, M. P. (2016). School-related outcomes of traumatic event exposure and traumatic stress symptoms in students: A systematic review of research from 1990 to 2015. School Mental Health, 8(1), 7–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9175-2.
Reinke, W., Stormont, M., Herman, M., & Newcomer, K. (2014). Using coaching to support teacher implementation of Classroom-based interventions. Journal of Behavioral Education, 23, 150–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-013-9186-0.
Richards, J. (2012). Teacher stress and coping strategies: A national snapshot. The Educational Forum, 76, 299–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131725.2012.682837.
Richards, K. A. R., Hemphill, M. A., & Templin, T. J. (2018). Personal and contextual factors related to teachers’ experience with stress and burnout. Teachers and Teaching Theory and Practice, 24, 768–787. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2018.1476337.
Rodger, S., Bird, R., Hibbert, K., Johnson, A. M., Specht, J., & Wathen, C. N. (2020, in press). Initial teacher education and trauma and violence informed care in the classroom: Results from a preliminary online teacher education course. Psychology in the Schools, doi: https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22373.
Ryan, J. P., Jacob, B. A., Gross, M., Perron, B. E., Moore, A., & Ferguson, S. (2018). Early exposure to child maltreatment and academic outcomes. Child Maltreatment, 23, 365–375.
Silverman, D. (2000). Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook. Sage Publications.
Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research. Sage Publications.
Thomas, M. S., Crosby, S., & Vanderhaar, J. (2019). Trauma-informed practices in schools across two decades: An interdisciplinary review of research. Review of Research in Education, 43(1), 422–452. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732x18821123.
Venkatesh, V., Brown, S. A., & Bala, H. (2013). Bridging the qualitative-quantitative divide: Guidelines for conducting mixed methods research in information systems. MIS Quarterly, 37(1), 21–54.
Weber, S., Jud, A., Landolt, M. A., & Goldbeck, L. (2017). Predictors of health-related quality of life in maltreated children and adolescents. Quality of Life Research: An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treatment, Care and Rehabilitation, 26(10), 2717–2727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-017-1615-4
Wolpow, R., Johnson, M. M., Hertel, R., & Kincaid, S. O. (2009). The heart of learning and teaching: Compassion, resiliency, and academic success. Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) Compassionate Schools.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded in part through a grant awarded to the Village for Children and Families by DHHS Office of Minority Health (AG161220). We offer our deep gratitude to the teachers, program staff, students, and their families who gave their time and effort to support this project. We are also very thankful for the aid of our many research assistants. Lastly, we offer our sincere thanks for our partners at The Village, including Aldwin Allen and Donna Ferguson.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Russell, B.S., Wink, M.N. & Hutchison, M. Mixed Methods Illustration of Teachers’ Trauma-Informed Attitudes and Practice. Journ Child Adol Trauma (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-023-00583-5
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-023-00583-5