Abstract
The mand is a type of verbal operant whose response form is under control of a motivating operation (MO). It is the first verbal operant to be acquired, directly benefits the speaker, leads to the development of other behaviors, and may serve to replace problem behavior. Even though the topography of the mand is under the functional control of an MO, its occurrence is influenced by a multitude of variables functioning as discriminative stimuli (SDs). Thus, the generalization of mands can occur across both MOs and SDs. Additionally, the same MO may evoke new mand topographies—a form of response generalization. The purpose of this article is to distinguish and describe these types of mand generalization in order to encourage future research and influence practice.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
In other words, any errors or omissions are my own.
The terms form and topography are used interchangeably.
According to Skinner (1957), “a ‘word’ . . . is a unit of behavior composed of a response of identifiable form functionally related to one or more independent variables” (p. 20).
Even though the variables controlling the topography of other verbal operants may also vary considerably from one occasion to the next, it may be the case that these variables (e.g., visual stimuli controlling textual responses) are not as transient as MOs, which, in some cases (e.g., food deprivation), may never be exactly reproduced.
Technically, any environmental event or condition that would establish the doll as a reinforcer and evoke behaviors that have produced the doll in the past could be categorized as “MOs for doll.” These may include not having played with that doll for a while, seeing the dollhouse, being asked to find the doll, and so on.
Technically, a transitive conditioned motivating operation (CMO–T) that establishes the value of another stimulus (i.e., the spoon) as a conditioned reinforcer (Michael, 2007).
Aversive stimuli establish their absence as a form of negative reinforcement and evoke all behaviors (escape and avoidance) that in the past have produced their removal. Given that aversive stimuli are correlated with differential effectiveness and not availability of their removal as reinforcers, they are best classified as MOs and not as SDs (Michael, 1982, 2007; Miguel, 2013).
Even though I am using the term response generalization to describe the emission of novel mand forms, the definition is not universally agreed upon and may not encompass all processes that may lead to the emission of a novel response (Stewart et al., 2013).
The term elicit is reserved to describe control of unconditioned or conditioned stimuli over reflexive unconditioned or respondently conditioned responses. It should never be used to refer to discriminative control of operant relations (Michael, 2004).
Metonymical tact extension (or control). See Skinner (1957, pp. 99–102).
Transfer of function.
In this specific example, a selection-based mand.
References
Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91
Barnes-Holmes, D., Barnes-Holmes, Y., & Cullinan, V. (2000). Relational frame theory and Skinner’s Verbal Behavior: A possible synthesis. The Behavior Analyst, 23, 69–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392000
Carr, E. G., & Durand, V. M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1985.18-111
Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.). Cornwall on Hudson, NY: Sloan Publishing.
Esch, B. E., & Esch, J. W. (2016). A bibliographic tribute to Jack Michael. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 32, 275–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-016-0073-3
Finn, H. E., Miguel, C. F., & Ahearn, W. H. (2012). The emergence of untrained mands and tacts in children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 45, 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2012.45-265
Gamba, J., Goyos, C., & Petursdottir, A. I. (2015). The functional independence of mands and tacts: Has it been empirically demonstrated? The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 31, 10–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-014-0026-7
Groskreutz, N. C., Groskreutz, M. P., Bloom, S. E., & Slocum, T. A. (2014). Generalization of negatively reinforced mands in children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47, 560–579. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.151
Halvey, C., & Rehfeldt, R. A. (2005). Expanding vocal requesting repertoires via relational responding in adults with severe developmental disabilities. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 21, 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393007
Hernandez, E., Hanley, G. P., Ingvarsson, E. T., & Tiger, J. H. (2007). A preliminary evaluation of the emergence of novel mand forms. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 137–156. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007.96-05
Horne, P. J., & Lowe, C. F. (1996). On the origins of naming and other symbolic behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 65, 185–241. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1996.65-185
LaFrance, D. L., & Miguel, C. F. (2014). Teaching language to children with autism spectrum disorder. In P. Sturmey, J. Tarbox, D. R. Dixon, & J. L. Matson (Eds.), Handbook of Early Intervention for Autism spectrum Disorders: Research, Practice, and Policy (pp. 403–436). New York, NY: Springer.
Laraway, S., Snycerski, S., Michael, J., & Poling, A. (2003). Motivating operations and terms to describe them: Some further refinements. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 407–414. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-407
Lechago, S. A., Carr, J. E., Grow, L. L., Love, J. R., & Almason, S. M. (2010). Mands for information generalize across establishing operations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43, 381–395. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2010.43-381
Lechago, S. A., Howell, A., Caccavale, M. N., & Peterson, C. W. (2013). Teaching “how?” mand-for-information frames to children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46, 781–791. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.71
Lotfizadeh, A. D., Edwards, T. L., Redner, R., & Poling, A. (2012). Motivating operations affect stimulus control: A largely overlooked phenomenon in discrimination learning. The Behavior Analyst, 35, 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392268
Michael, J. (1982). Distinguishing between discriminative and motivational functions of stimuli. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 37, 149–155. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1982.37-149
Michael, J. (1988). Establishing operations and the mand. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 6, 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392824
Michael, J. (1993). Establishing operations. The Behavior Analyst, 16, 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392623
Michael, J. (2007). Motivating operations. In J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, & W. L. Heward (Eds.), Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed., pp. 374–391). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Michael, J., Palmer, D. C., & Sundberg, M. L. (2011). The multiple control of verbal behavior. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 27, 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393089
Michael, J. L. (2004). Concepts and Principles of Behavior Analysis (Rev. ed.). Kalamazoo, MI: Society for the Advancement of Behavior Analysis.
Miguel, C. F. (2013). Jack Michael’s motivation. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 29, 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393119
Miguel, C. F. (2016). Common and intraverbal bidirectional naming. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 32, 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-016-0066-2
Miguel, C. F., Frampton, S. E., Lantaya, C. A., LaFrance, D. L., Quah, K., Meyer, C. S., et al. (2015). The effects of tact training on the development of analogical reasoning. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 104, 96–118. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeab.167
Murphy, C., & Barnes-Holmes, D. (2010). Establishing five derived mands in three adolescent boys with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43, 537–541. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2010.43-537
Pennington, R. C., Ault, M. J., Schmuck, D. G., Burt, J. L., & Ferguson, L. L. (2016). Frequency of mand instruction reported in behavioral, special education, and speech journals. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9, 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-015-0095-7
Rehfeldt, R. A., & Root, S. L. (2005). Establishing derived requesting skills in adults with severe developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38, 101–105. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2005.106-03
Rosales, R., & Rehfeldt, R. A. (2007). Contriving transitive conditioned establishing operations to establish derived manding skills in adults with severe developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2007.117-05
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Stewart, I., McElwee, J., & Ming, S. (2013). Language generativity, response generalization, and derived relational responding. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 29, 137–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393131
Stokes, T. F., & Baer, D. M. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349–367. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1977.10-349
Sundberg, M. L. (2007). Verbal behavior. In J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, & W. L. Heward (Eds.), Applied Behavior Analysis (2nd ed., pp. 526–547). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Wallace, M. D., Iwata, B. A., & Hanley, G. P. (2006). Establishment of mands following tact training as a function of reinforcer strength. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2006.119-04
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Mirela Cengher, Danielle LaFrance, Hank Schlinger, and Mark Sundberg for their invaluable comments on previous versions of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.
Human and Animal Studies
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by the author.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Miguel, C.F. The Generalization of Mands. Analysis Verbal Behav 33, 191–204 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-017-0090-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-017-0090-x