Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Racial/Ethnic Differences in Sexually Transmitted Infection Testing Among Transgender Men and Nonbinary Assigned Female at Birth Young Adults in the United States: a National Study

  • Published:
Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) cause a major burden of disease in the United States (US)—especially among structurally marginalized populations, including transgender and nonbinary people, individuals assigned female at birth (AFAB), Black and Latinx/e individuals, and young adults. Although screening can help detect and prevent STIs, research on STI testing among populations at diverse intersections of multiple forms of structural marginalization, including Black, Latinx/e, and other racially/ethnically minoritized transgender men and nonbinary AFAB US young adults, is extremely scarce.

Methods

We conducted a national cross-sectional online survey of transgender and nonbinary US young adults from February to July 2019. Using Poisson regression, we estimated prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the associations between race/ethnicity—which we conceptualized as a system of structural inequality that shapes individuals’ and groups’ exposure to racism—and lifetime and past-year STI testing among transgender men and nonbinary AFAB US young adults aged 18–30 years with at least one-lifetime sexual partner (N = 378).

Results

Approximately 74% of participants had received an STI test in their lifetime, and, among those, 72% with a past-year sexual partner had been tested for an STI in the last 12 months. We observed no statistically significant association between race/ethnicity and lifetime STI testing among transgender and nonbinary AFAB young adults with a lifetime sexual partner. In contrast, Black (PR = 1.32; 95%: 1.03, 1.68) and Latinx/e (PR = 1.39; 95% CI: 1.11, 1.75) transgender men and nonbinary AFAB young adults who ever received an STI test and had a past-year sexual partner were significantly more likely to have received an STI test in the last 12 months relative to their White counterparts, adjusting for demographic factors. Further adjustment for lifetime STI diagnosis and health insurance status did not appreciably attenuate these observed adjusted differences; however, the adjusted difference in the prevalence of past-year STI testing between Black (but not Latinx/e) and White transgender men and nonbinary AFAB young adults was no longer statistically significant upon further adjustment for educational attainment and employment status, possibly due to small sample sizes.

Conclusion

The higher adjusted prevalence of past-year STI testing among Black and Latinx/e compared to White transgender men and nonbinary AFAB US young adults may reflect racist and xenophobic sexual stereotypes about Black and Latinx/e people among health care providers and institutions, the history of hyper-surveillance of Black and Latinx/e people by public health institutions in the context of infectious disease containment, and/or agency and resistance among Black and Latinx/e transgender men and nonbinary AFAB young adults with regard to sexual health promotion in the face of multiple compounding systems of oppression.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Sexually transmitted infections: Adopting a sexual health paradigm. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2021. https://doi.org/10.17226/25955.

  2. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) [Internet]. [cited 2022 Oct 11]. Available from: https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/sexually-transmitted-infections.

  3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance 2018. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2019. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/std/stats18/STDSurveillance2018-full-report.pdf.

  4. Van Gerwen OT, Jani A, Long DM, Austin EL, Musgrove K, Muzny CA. Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections and human immunodeficiency virus in transgender persons: a systematic review. Transgender Heal. 2020;5(2):90–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Stephenson R, Riley E, Rogers E, Suarez N, Metheny N, Senda J, et al. The sexual health of transgender men: a scoping review. J Sex Res. 2017;54(4–5):424–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Reisner SL, Murchison GR. A global research synthesis of HIV and STI biobehavioural risks in female-to-male transgender adults. Glob Public Health. 2016;11(7–8):866–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Bauer GR, Redman N, Bradley K, Scheim AI. Sexual health of trans men who are gay, bisexual, or who have sex with men: results from Ontario. Canada Int J Transgenderism. 2013;14(2):66–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Scheim AI, Bauer GR, Travers R. HIV-related sexual risk among transgender men who are gay, bisexual, or have sex with men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2017;74(4):e89-96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Becasen JS, Denard CL, Mullins MM, Higa DH, Sipe TA. Estimating the prevalence of HIV and sexual behaviors among the US transgender population: a systematic review and meta-analysis, 2006–2017. Am J Public Health. 2019;109(1):E1-8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Reisner SL, White JM, Mayer KH, Mimiaga MJ. Sexual risk behaviors and psychosocial health concerns of female-to-male transgender men screening for STDs at an urban community health center. AIDS Care. 2014;26(7):857–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Reisner SL, Moore CS, Asquith A, Pardee DJ, Mayer KH. Gender non-affirmation from cisgender male partners: development and validation of a brief stigma scale for HIV research with transgender men who have sex with men (trans MSM). AIDS Behav. 2020;24(1):331–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ. Contextual factors and the black-white disparity in heterosexual HIV transmission. Epidemiology. 2002;13(6):707–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Hogben M, Leichliter JS. Social determinants and sexually transmitted disease disparities. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35(12 Suppl):S13–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Pugsley RA, Chapman DA, Kennedy MG, Liu H, Lapane KL. Residential segregation and gonorrhea rates in US metropolitan statistical areas, 2005–2009. Sex Transm Dis. 2013;40(6):439–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Bailey ZD, Krieger N, Agénor M, Graves J, Linos N, Bassett MT. Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions. Lancet. 2017;389(10077):1453–63.

  16. Bailey ZD, Feldman JM, Bassett MT. How structural racism works - racist policies as a root cause of U.S. Racial Health Inequities. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(8):768–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Gee GC, Ford CL. Structural racism and health inequities: old issues, new directions. Du Bois Rev. 2011;8(1):115–32.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Longman Marcellin R, Bauer GR, Scheim AI. Intersecting impacts of transphobia and racism on HIV risk among trans persons of colour in Ontario, Canada. Ethn Inequalities Heal Soc Care. 2013;6(4):97–107.

  19. McRee A-L, Gower AL, Reiter PL. Preventive healthcare services use among transgender young adults. Int J transgenderism. 2018;19(4):417–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Brown B, Poteat T, Marg L, Galea JT. Human papillomavirus-related cancer surveillance, prevention, and screening among transgender men and women: neglected populations at high risk. LGBT Heal. 2017;4(5):315–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Scheim AI, Travers R. Barriers and facilitators to HIV and sexually transmitted infections testing for gay, bisexual, and other transgender men who have sex with men. AIDS Care. 2017;29(8):990–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Scheim AI, Santos G-M, Arreola S, Makofane K, Do TD, Hebert P, et al. Inequities in access to HIV prevention services for transgender men: results of a global survey of men who have sex with men. J Int AIDS Soc. 2016;19(3 Suppl 2):20779.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Poteat T, German D, Kerrigan D. Managing uncertainty: a grounded theory of stigma in transgender health care encounters. Soc Sci Med. 2013;84:22–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Bauer GR, Hammond R, Travers R, Kaay M, Hohenadel KM, Boyce M. “I don’t think this is theoretical; this is our lives”: how erasure impacts health care for transgender people. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2009;20(5):348–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. James S, Herman J, Rankin S, Keisling M, Mottet L, Anafi M. The report of the 2015 U.S. transgender survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality; 2016. Available at: https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/usts/USTS-Full-Report-Dec17.pdf.

  26. Agénor M, Zubizarreta D, Geffen S, Ramanayake N, Giraldo S, McGuirk A, et al. “Making a way out of no way:” understanding the sexual and reproductive health care experiences of transmasculine young adults of color in the United States. Qual Health Res. 2022;32(1):121–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. hooks b. Ain’t I a woman: Black women and feminism. Boston, MA: South End Press; 1981.

  28. Davis A. Race & class. New York, NY: Random House Publishers; 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  29. The Combahee River Collective. The Combahee River collective statement. 1977. Available from: https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/combahee-river-collective-statement-1977/.

  30. Collins PH. Black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment (revised 10th anniversary 2nd edition). New York, NY: Routledge; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Collins PH, Bilge S. Intersectionality. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Bowleg L. The problem with the phrase women and minorities: intersectionality—an important theoretical framework for public health. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(7):1267–73.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Crenshaw K. Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum. 1989;1(8):139–67.

  34. Crenshaw K. Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Rev. 1991;43(6):1241–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Agénor M, Geffen SR, Zubizarreta D, Jones R, Giraldo S, McGuirk A, et al. Experiences of and resistance to multiple discrimination in health care settings among transmasculine people of color. BMC Health Serv Res. 2022;22(1):369.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. TM Health Justice: LA. Transmasculine health justice: Los Angeles--a participatory research report. Los Angeles, CA: TM Health Justice: LA; 2021. Available at: https://www.tmhealthstudyla.org/2021-report/.

  37. Howard SD, Lee KL, Nathan AG, Wenger HC, Chin MH, Cook SC. Healthcare experiences of transgender people of color. J Gen Intern Med. 2019;34(10):2068–74.

  38. White ME, Cartwright AD, Reyes AG, Morris H, Lindo NA, Singh AA, et al. “A whole other layer of complexity”: Black transgender men’s experiences. J LGBT Issues Couns. 2020;14(3):248–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Harrison-Quintana, Pérez D, Grant J. Injustice at every turn: a look at Latino/a respondents in the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality; 2011. Available from: https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/ntds_latino_english_2.pdf.

  40. Harrison-Quintana, Lettman-Hicks S, Grant J. Injustice at every turn: a look at Black respondents in the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality. Available from: https://transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/resources/ntds_black_respondents_2.pdf.

  41. Bauer GR, Travers R, Scanlon K, Coleman TA. High heterogeneity of HIV-related sexual risk among transgender people in Ontario, Canada: a province-wide respondent-driven sampling survey. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:292.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Grant JM, Mottet LA, Tanis J, Harrison J, Herman J, Keisling M. Injustice at every turn: a report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. Washington, D.C: National Center for Transgender Equality; 2011. Available from: http://endtransdiscrimination.org/report.html.

  43. Xavier JM, Bobbin M, Singer B, Budd E. A needs assessment of transgendered people of color living in Washington, DC. Int J Transgenderism. 2005;8(2–3):31–47.

  44. Griner SB, Beckstead JW, Vamos CA, Puccio JA, Perrin K, Daley EM. Sexually transmitted infection screening among college women by race/ethnicity and number of male sex partners: National Survey of Family Growth, 2013–2015. Int J Sex Heal. 2020;32(2):141–50.

  45. Patel CG, Chesson HW, Tao G. Racial differences in receipt of chlamydia testing among Medicaid-insured women in 2013. Sex Transm Dis. 2016;43(3):147–51.

  46. Goyal MK, Hayes KL, Mollen CJ. Racial disparities in testing for sexually transmitted infections in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2012;19(5):604–7.

  47. Cook E, Makedah Johnson and JM. Identifying scammers in online studies. Washington, DC: American Evaluation Association; 2019. Available from: https://aea365.org/blog/identifying-scammers-in-online-studies-by-elizabeth-cook-makedah-johnson-and-jennifer-manlove/.

  48. Bauermeister J, Pingel E, Zimmerman M, Couper M, Carballo-Diéguez A, Strecher VJ. Data quality in web-based HIV/AIDS research: handling invalid and suspicious data. Field Methods. 2012;24(3):272–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Bauermeister JA, Zimmerman MA, Johns MM, Glowacki P, Stoddard S, Volz E. Innovative recruitment using online networks: lessons learned from an online study of alcohol and other drug use utilizing a web-based, respondent-driven sampling (webRDS) strategy. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2012;73(5):834–8.

  50. Nelson KM, Carey MP, Fisher CB. Is guardian permission a barrier to online sexual health research among adolescent males interested in sex with males? J Sex Res. 2019;56(4–5):593–603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Artiga S, Orgera K, Damico A. Changes in health coverage by race and ethnicity since the ACA, 2010–2018. Issue Br. 2020;(March):2010–8.

  52. Buchmueller TC, Levinson ZM, Levy HG, Wolfe BL. Effect of the affordable care act on racial and ethnic disparities in health insurance coverage. Am J Public Health. 2016;106(8):1416–21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. KFF. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs): an overview, payment, and coverage. Washington, DC: KFF; 2021. Available from: https://www.kff.org/womens-health-policy/fact-sheet/sexually-transmitted-infections-stis-an-overview-payment-and-coverage/#.

  54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. STI screening recommendations. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment-guidelines/screening-recommendations.htm#print.

  55. Zou G. A modified Poisson regression approach to prospective studies with binary data. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159(7):702–6.

  56. Zeileis A. Object-oriented computation of sandwich estimators. J Stat Softw. 2006;16(9):1–16.

  57. Eiduson R, Murchison GR, Agénor M, Suarez L, Gordon AR. Sexual healthcare experiences of nonbinary young adults. Cult Health Sex. 2021;17:1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Romanelli M, Lindsey MA. Patterns of healthcare discrimination among transgender help-seekers. Am J Prev Med. 2020;58(4):e123–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Kattari SK, Bakko M, Hecht HK, Kattari L. Correlations between healthcare provider interactions and mental health among transgender and nonbinary adults. SSM - Popul Heal [Internet]. 2020;10. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100525.

  60. Seelman KL, Colón-Diaz MJP, LeCroix RH, Xavier-Brier M, Kattari L. Transgender noninclusive healthcare and delaying care because of fear: connections to general health and mental health among transgender adults. Transgender Heal. 2017;2(1):17–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Calabrese SK, Earnshaw VA, Magnus M, Hansen NB, Krakower DS, Underhill K, et al. Sexual stereotypes ascribed to Black men who have sex with men: an intersectional analysis. Arch Sex Behav. 2018;47(1):143–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Roberts D. Killing the Black body. New York, NY: Random House Publishers; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Collins PH. Black sexual politics: African Americans, gender, and the new racism. New York, NY: Routledge; 2004.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  64. Limón JE. Tex-sex-Mex: American identities, lone stars, and the politics of racialized sexuality. Am Lit Hist. 1997;9(3):598–616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. López V, Chesney-Lind M. Latina girls speak out: stereotypes, gender and relationship dynamics. Lat Stud. 2014;12(4):527–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Roman E. Who exactly is living la vida loca ?: the legal and political consequences of Latino-Latina ethnic and racial stereotypes in film and other media. J Gend Race Justice. 2000;4:37–68.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Wilson PA, Valera P, Ventuneac A, Balan I, Rowe M, Carballo-Dieguez A. Race-based sexual stereotyping and sexual partnering among men who use the internet to identify other men for bareback sex. J Sex Res. 2009;46(5):399–413.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Byrd WM, Clayton LA. Race, medicine, and health care in the United States: a historical survey. J Natl Med Assoc. 2001;93(3 Suppl):11S-34S.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Jones JH. Bad blood: the Tuskegee syphilis experiment. New York, NY: The Free Press; 1993.

  70. Washington HA. Medical apartheid: the dark history of medical experimentation on Black Americans from colonial times to the present. New York, NY: Harlem Moon; 2008.

  71. Markel H, Stern AM. The foreignness of germs: the persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society. Milbank Q. 2002;80(4):757–88.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Tobin K, Edwards C, Flath N, Lee A, Tormohlen K, Gaydos CA. Acceptability and feasibility of a peer mentor program to train young Black men who have sex with men to promote HIV and STI home-testing to their social network members. AIDS Care. 2018;30(7):896–902.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Wilton L, Herbst JH, Coury-Doniger P, Painter TM, English G, Alvarez ME, et al. Efficacy of an HIV/STI prevention intervention for Black men who have sex with men: findings from the many men, many voices (3MV) project. AIDS Behav. 2009;13(3):532–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Sevelius J. “There’s no pamphlet for the kind of sex I have”: HIV-related risk factors and protective behaviors among transgender men who have sex with nontransgender men. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2009;20(5):398–410.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Rhodes SD, Alonzo J, Mann-Jackson L, Song EY, Tanner AE, Garcia M, et al. A peer navigation intervention to prevent HIV among mixed immigrant status Latinx GBMSM and transgender women in the United States: outcomes, perspectives and implications for PrEP uptake. Health Educ Res. 2020;35(3):165–78.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Painter TM, Song EY, Mullins MM, Mann-Jackson L, Alonzo J, Reboussin BA, et al. Social support and other factors associated with HIV testing by Hispanic/Latino gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men in the U.S. South. AIDS Behav. 2019;23(Suppl 3):251–65.

  77. Agénor M. Future directions for incorporating intersectionality into quantitative population health research. Am J Public Health. 2020;110(6):803–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Seelman KL, Poteat T. Strategies used by transmasculine and non-binary adults assigned female at birth to resist transgender stigma in healthcare. Int J Transgender Heal. 2020;21(3):350–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Jordan Schultz, Lucy Suarez, Lorena Fernandez, and Mei Lian Hoe for their help preparing materials and recruiting participants for this study, and Leanne Loo for her help reviewing the literature. We also thank Kimberly Nelson, Sabra Katz-Wise, Ruben Hopwood, and the Harvard University Center for AIDS Research for their advice and guidance on community engagement, participant recruitment, and data collection. We are also very grateful to the transgender and nonbinary individuals who offered feedback on data collection tools and procedures during pilot testing and took the time to participate in our survey.

Funding

This work was made possible by support from the Aerosmith Endowment Fund for Prevention and Treatment of HIV and Other Sexually Transmitted Infections (PI: Gordon), the Research Education Institute for Diverse Scholars (REIDS) pilot grant (PI: Agénor), from the National Institute of Mental Health grant 1R25GM111837-01 awarded to the Center for Interdisciplinary Research on AIDS at Yale University, and funding from the Harvard University Open Gate Foundation (PI: Murchison). The content of this article is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University School of Public Health, Box G-S121-8, Providence, RI, 02912, USA

    Madina Agénor

  2. Center for Health Promotion and Health Equity, Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA

    Madina Agénor

  3. The Fenway Institute, Fenway Health, Boston, MA, USA

    Madina Agénor

  4. Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Elle Lett

  5. Center for Applied Transgender Studies, Chicago, IL, USA

    Elle Lett

  6. Computational Health Informatics Program, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    Elle Lett

  7. Department of Psychology, Suffolk University, Boston, MA, USA

    Natasha Ramanayake

  8. Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA

    Dougie Zubizarreta

  9. Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA

    Gabriel R. Murchison

  10. Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA

    Rose Eiduson

  11. Department of Community Health Sciences, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA

    Allegra R. Gordon

  12. Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    Allegra R. Gordon

Authors
  1. Madina Agénor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elle Lett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Natasha Ramanayake
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Dougie Zubizarreta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Gabriel R. Murchison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Rose Eiduson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Allegra R. Gordon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Madina Agénor conceptualized and drafted the manuscript, and Dougie Zubizarreta conducted literature reviews and contributed to the writing. Data collection and management were conducted by Gabriel R. Murchison, Rose Eiduson, and Allegra R. Gordon. Elle Lett analyzed the data, and Natasha Ramanayake contributed to data management and analysis. All authors provided critical feedback on previous versions of this article and reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Madina Agénor.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval

All research activities were reviewed and approved by the Boston Children’s Hospital Institutional Review Board.

Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all participants in the study.

Consent for Publication

Consent to publish the research findings included in this article was received from all participants.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Agénor, M., Lett, E., Ramanayake, N. et al. Racial/Ethnic Differences in Sexually Transmitted Infection Testing Among Transgender Men and Nonbinary Assigned Female at Birth Young Adults in the United States: a National Study. J. Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 10, 2900–2910 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01467-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01467-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation