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How can legislators protect sport from the integrity threat posed by cryptocurrencies?

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Abstract

The emergence of wagering sites taking bets in cryptocurrencies like bitcoin could lead to significant change in the way match-fixers operate. Internet gambling has already put fixing into overdrive. Now, with cryptocurrencies, fixers have a payment mechanism which offers them significantly more anonymity. This poses a new set of challenges not just for law enforcement authorities but also for lawmakers. This essay analyses the appropriateness of Australia’s legislation on match-fixing in an environment of ‘crypto-wagering’, and identifies several loopholes which could be exploited by fixers at the cutting edge of gambling and financial technology.

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Notes

  1. Brito and Castillo (2016).

  2. Huang (2015).

  3. Brito et al. (2014, pp. 150–1).

  4. Huang (2015, p. 2101).

  5. Brito et al. (2014, pp. 150–1).

  6. Dula and Chuen (2017, p. 15).

  7. Reijers et al. (2016, p. 134).

  8. Brito et al. (2014, pp. 150–1).

  9. Brito and Castillo (2013, p. 9).

  10. Ibid.

  11. Ibid., p. 5.

  12. Ibid., p. 6.

  13. Ibid., p. 5.

  14. Reserve Bank Act 1959 (Cth) s 36(1); Currency Act 1965 (Cth) s 16.

  15. Currency Act 1965 (Cth) s 11(1).

  16. Ibid s 9(1).

  17. Australian Constitution s 51(xii); Watson v Lee [1979] HCA 53, [28].

  18. Australian Tax Office (2014), Income tax: is bitcoin a ‘foreign currency’ for the purposes of Division 775 of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997?, TD 2014/25, 7 December 2014.

  19. Ibid., [31]-[32].

  20. Ibid., [17].

  21. Ibid.

  22. [1899] 2 QB 111.

  23. Travelex Limited v Commissioner of Taxation [2008] FCA 1961.

  24. Ibid [25].

  25. Messenger Press Proprietary Ltd v FC of T [2012] FCA 756.

  26. Australian Tax Office (2014), Income tax: is bitcoin a ‘foreign currency’ for the purposes of Division 775 of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997?, Taxation Determination TD 2014/25, 7 December 2014, [24].

  27. Yanner v Eaton [1999] HCA 53 [17].

  28. Australian Tax Office (2014), Income tax: is bitcoin a ‘CGT asset’ for the purposes of subsection 108-5(1) of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997?, TD 2014/26, 7 December 2014, [10]-[11].

  29. Treasury Laws Amendment (2017 Measures No 6) Act 2017; A New Tax System (Goods and Services Tax) Act 1999 (Cth).

  30. Australian Tax Office (2014) Goods and services tax: the GST implications of transactions involving bitcoin’, Goods and Services Tax Ruling, GSTR 2014/3, 7 December 2014.

  31. Borroni (2016, pp. 97–98).

  32. Ibid p. 101; Brito and Castillo (2016, p. 55).

  33. Stamp Payments Act of 1862, 18 USC §336.

  34. Borroni (2016, pp. 109–10).

  35. Securities and Exchange Commission v Trendon T Shavers and Bitcoin Savings and Trust, Civil Action No Civil Action No 4:13-CV-416.

  36. Borroni (2016, pp. 95–9).

  37. Ibid., pp. 95–6.

  38. Huang (2015, pp. 2094–2116).

  39. Ibid., p. 2016.

  40. Ibid., p, 2119.

  41. Willmer, S (2017) Larry Fink Says Cryptocurrencies Show Level of Money Laundering. Bloomberg Markets. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-10-03/larry-fink-says-cryptocurrencies-show-level-of-money-laundering.

  42. Europol (2015) The Internet Organized Crime Threat Assessment, p. 47.

  43. Financial Action Task Force (2015, p. 3).

  44. Stokes (2012, p. 231).

  45. Keidar, R and Treistman, N (2017) How blockchain could end, instead of enable, money laundering. Vulturebeat. https://venturebeat.com/2017/10/08/how-blockchain-could-end-instead-of-enable-money-laundering/.

  46. Ibid.

  47. Kaiser (2016, p. 217).

  48. Hileman and Rauchs (2017, pp. 30–6).

  49. Ibid., p. 36.

  50. Financial Action Task Force (2015, p. 9).

  51. Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Act 2006 (Cth); Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Amendment Bill 2017.

  52. Explanatory Memorandum, Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Amendment Bill 2017 (Cth), 7.

  53. Ibid.

  54. Ibid., 15 [21].

  55. Bank Secrecy Act of 1970, 31 USC § 5311 (1970).

  56. Money Laundering Control Act of 1994, 18 USC § 1956 (1994).

  57. USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, 115 Stat 272 (2001).

  58. Zhou (2014, p. 123).

  59. The 4th Anti-Money Laundering Directive [2015] OJ L 141/73.

  60. Kaiser (2016, pp. 212–3).

  61. The 4th Anti-Money Laundering Directive [2015] OJ L 141/73, art 3(3).

  62. The Free Trade and Processing Zone Act 1994 (Antigua and Barbuda); Kelly (2000a, b, pp. 127–131).

  63. Janower (1996).

  64. Kelly (2000a, b, pp. 118–9).

  65. Sorbonne-ICSS (2014, p. 8).

  66. Australian Government: Department of Social Services (2016, p. 25).

  67. Ibid., p. 44.

  68. Ibid.

  69. Sorbonne-ICSS (2014, p. 8).

  70. Wilson (2003, p. 1249).

  71. Lessig (1999, p. 16).

  72. Australian Government: Department of Social Services (2016, p. 111).

  73. Wilson (2003, p. 1246).

  74. Ibid., p. 1258.

  75. Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation (2015) Offshore online wagering—what do we know?.

  76. Rose and Owens (2009, p. 108).

  77. Wilson (2003, p. 1249).

  78. Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation, ‘Offshore online wagering—what do we know?’ (Information Sheet, 4 December 2015).

  79. Palen (2002, p. 152).

  80. Sutherland (2014, p. 11).

  81. 31 USC §§ 5361–5367.

  82. Rodenberg and Kaburakis (2013, p. 8).

  83. Ibid.

  84. Sorbonne-ICSS (2014, p. 13).

  85. Rose and Owens (2009, p. 112).

  86. Cooper (2011, p. 59).

  87. Forrest and McHale (2016, p. 13).

  88. Kerr, J (2017) Online gambling industry using data scouts to target suburban sports. ABC (online), 16 June 2017. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-16/online-gambling-industry-targets-suburban-sports/8619546.

  89. Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission (2017) Organised Crime in Australia 2017. ACIC, Canberra, p. 10.

  90. Eaton, Chris, Eaton’s Take on Tennis. The ICSS (online). www.theicss.org/en/news/read/eatons-take-on-tennis.

  91. Carpenter (2011, p. 20), quoting Secretary General Ronald K Noble.

  92. Hill (2010, pp. 176–7).

  93. Van Rompuy (2015).

  94. Forrest et al. (2008, pp. 158–9).

  95. Forrest and McHale (2016).

  96. Forrest (2013, p. 182).

  97. Van Rompuy (2015, p. 34).

  98. Ibid., p. 19.

  99. Ibid., p. 32.

  100. Ibid., p. 32.

  101. Australian Institute for Gambling Research (1999, pp. 83–4).

  102. Ibid.

  103. [2008] HCA 11.

  104. Parliamentary Joint Select Committee on Gambling Reform (2011) Interactive and online gambling and gambling advertising Interactive Gambling and Broadcasting Amendment (Online Transactions and Other Measures) Bill 2011: Second report. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. pp. 241–242.

  105. See, e.g. Interactive Gambling (Player Protection) Act 1998 (Qld); Interactive Gambling Act 1998 (ACT).

  106. Australian Constitution s 51(v).

  107. [1935] HCA 78.

  108. [1965] HCA 6.

  109. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth).

  110. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 5-8E.

  111. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 8A(3).

  112. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 15(1).

  113. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 15AA(1).

  114. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 14.

  115. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 13.

  116. Australian Communications and Media Authority (2015) Communications report 2014–15. Australian Government, Canberra. p. 87.

  117. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 69.

  118. Unlawful Gambling Act 1998 (NSW) s 8-11A.

  119. Unlawful Gambling Act 1998 (NSW) s 9, 11A.

  120. Unlawful Gambling Act 1998 (NSW) s 8(3).

  121. Unlawful Gambling Act 1998 (NSW) s 8(4A); Unlawful Gambling Amendment(Betting) Act 2000 (NSW).

  122. The Australian Institute of Gambling Research says sportsbetting accounted for just 0.2 per cent of Australia’s gambling spend in 1997/98.

  123. Unlawful Gambling Act 1998 (NSW) s 8(1)(a) (emphasis added).

  124. Unlawful Gambling Act 1998 (NSW) s 10.

  125. Unlawful Gambling Act 1998 (NSW) s 4.

  126. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193 J.

  127. [2006] VSC 108, [11].

  128. [2006] VSC 108, [14].

  129. [2006] VSC 108, [61].

  130. [2006] VSC 108, [32].

  131. Department of Health, Australian Government (2011, p. 2).

  132. Ibid.

  133. Crimes Amendment (Cheating At Gambling) Bill 2012 (NSW); Crimes Act 1900 (NSW).

  134. Criminal Law Consolidation (Cheating at Gambling) Amendment Bill 2012 (SA); Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (SA) s 144G-K.

  135. Crimes Amendment (Integrity in Sports) Act 2013 (Vic); Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) s 195B-F.

  136. Criminal Code (Cheating at Gambling) Amendment Act 2013 (ACT); Criminal Code 2002 (ACT) s 363A-H; Criminal Code Amendment (Cheating at Gambling) Act 2013 (NT); Criminal Code Act 1983 (NT) s 237A-N.

  137. Criminal Code (Cheating at Gambling) Amendment Bill 2013 (Qld); Criminal Code Act 1899 (Qld) s 443-443G.

  138. New South Wales Law Reform Commission (2011, p. 14).

  139. See, e.g. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193H(1); Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) s 195B.

  140. See, e.g. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193 N; Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) s 195C.

  141. Criminal Code Act 1899 (Qld) s 443-443A.

  142. Criminal Code Act 1899 (Qld) s 443.

  143. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193J.

  144. Criminal Code Act 1899 (Qld) s 443.

  145. Criminal Code Act 1899 (Qld) s 1.

  146. See, e.g. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193 J(2); Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) s 195B.

  147. Department of Health, Australian Government (2011, pp. 4 [3.5]–[3.6]).

  148. Ibid.

  149. Ibid., p. 5 [3.8](k).

  150. Ibid., 6 [3.13]-[3.14].

  151. Gambling and Racing Legislation Amendment (Sports Betting) Act 2007 (Vic).

  152. Racing Administration Amendment (Sports Betting National Operational Model) Act 2014 (NSW).

  153. Race and Sports Bookmaking Act 2001 (ACT) s 20.

  154. Authorised Betting Operations Act 2000 (SA) s 4.

  155. Racing and Betting Act (NT) s 148 (emphasis added).

  156. Liquor and Gaming NSW, Schedule of Declared Betting Events and Approved Forms of Betting.

  157. Victorian Commission for Gambling and Liquor Regulation, Approved betting events. https://www.vcglr.vic.gov.au/gambling/wagering-and-sports-betting/about-wagering-and-sports-betting/approved-betting-events.

  158. Victorian Commission for Gambling and Liquor Regulation, Sports controlling bodies.

    https://www.vcglr.vic.gov.au/gambling/wagering-and-sports-betting/sports-controlling-bodies.

  159. Northern Territory Government, Declared sporting events for bookmaking. https://nt.gov.au/industry/gambling/bookmaker-licences-and-permits/declared-sporting-events-for-bookmaking.

  160. Betting Control Act 1954 (WA) s 4B.

  161. Ibid., s 4B(3).

  162. Western Australia, Gazette: Fixed Odds Rules 2017, No 142, 11 July 2017, [495] - [510].

  163. Racing and Wagering Act 2003 (WA) s 120(3).

  164. Ibid., s 54(2)(a)(ii).

  165. Ibid., s 54(3).

  166. Ibid., s 3 (definition of ‘sporting event’).

  167. Ibid., s 120.

  168. Explanatory Statement, Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Rules in Respect of the Definition of Designated Business Group, Correspondent Banking Due Diligence, Customer Identification Procedures, AML/CTF Programs and Gambling Sector (Cth) 3–4.

  169. Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre (2017) Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Rules Instrument 2007, No 1, 4 July 2017, part 4.2.

  170. Ibid., s 10.4.2(2).

  171. Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Act 2006 (Cth) s 229.

  172. Northern Territory Code of Practice for Responsible Online Gambling 2016 s 6.3.

  173. Bender (2014) Gamblers bet on Bitcoin for anonymous online wagering. Computerworld (online), 12 June 2014. https://www.computerworld.com.au/article/547387/gamblers_bet_bitcoin_anonymous_online_wagering/.

  174. Owens and Lavitch (2013, p. 764).

  175. Bitcoin Gambling Guide (2015) Bitcoin Gambling Guide’ Pushes Ahead With Over 400 Bitcoin Gambling Platform Reviews (Press release, 9 June 2015). https://bitcoinmagazine.com/articles/bitcoin-gambling-guide-pushes-ahead-400-bitcoin-gambling-platform-reviews-1433824607/.

  176. Gainsbury and Blaszczynski (2017, p. 486).

  177. Digital gold rush: how Bitcoin is changing the online gambling industry (2017).Tech Buzz (online), 23 June 2017. http://www.tgdaily.com/technology/digital-gold-rush-how-bitcoin-is-changing-the-online-gambling-industry.

  178. Sportsbook Reviews, Bitcoin Sportsbook Reviews. https://www.sportsbookreview.com/betting-sites/bitcoin-sportsbooks/; Sportsbook Review, Online Sports Betting Sites Rating Guide (filtered for sites which accept bitcoin and do live betting). https://www.sportsbookreview.com/betting-sites/#hf-bank-options:361=on;hf-features:47=on.

  179. Sportsbook Review, Anonibet. https://www.sportsbookreview.com/betting-sites/anonibet/.

  180. Anonibet. https://www.anonibet.com.

  181. Sportsbook Reviews, Bitcoin Sportsbook Reviews. https://www.sportsbookreview.com/betting-sites/bitcoin-sportsbooks/.

  182. Figures from Costa Rica where said to be between 250 and 500, so for this calculation, the difference was split at 375.

  183. ACMA, FOI disclosure log: Log 37 (Document 24). https://www.acma.gov.au/-/media/Legal-Services/FOI-logs/FOI-log-37/Document-24_Redacted-pdf.pdf?la=en.

  184. Gainsbury and Blaszczynski (2017, p. 487).

  185. Ibid., p. 485.

  186. Ibid.

  187. Ibid., p. 486.

  188. Canning, J (2017) Is bitcoin being used for match fixing? Bitedge (17 March 2017) https://bitedge.com/blog/is-bitcoin-being-used-for-match-fixing/.

  189. Hammerl, M (2017) Fußballspiel mit einem Zuseher: Betrugsverdacht. Wien Orf.at (online), 17 March 2017. wien.orf.at/news/stories/2831706.

  190. See, e.g https://www.cloudbet.com/en/sports/soccer/essendon-royals-sc-v-altona-city-sc/e158004; https://www.cloudbet.com/en/sports/soccer/essendon-royals-sc-v-keilor-park-sc/e859741; https://www.cloudbet.com/en/sports/australia/victoria-state-league-1-north-west/c2587.

  191. Gainsbury and Blaszczynski (2017 p., 490).

  192. Hypestat, shybook.ag. http://skybook.ag.hypestat.com/.

  193. Hypestat, bovada.lv. http://bovada.lv.hypestat.com/; Hypestat, sportsbet.com.au http://sportsbet.com.au.hypestat.com/.

  194. See, e.g. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193 J; Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) s 195B.

  195. Kerr, J (2017) Under the radar: how the global gambling industry is encroaching on amateur sport ABC Radio National Background Briefing, 18 June 2017.

  196. Victorian Commission for Gambling and Liquor Regulation, Approved betting events. https://www.vcglr.vic.gov.au/gambling/wagering-and-sports-betting/about-wagering-and-sports-betting/approved-betting-events.

  197. Taken to their logical conclusion, Australia’s match-fixing laws have produced the curious situation where the protection of low-level competitions from the integrity threats presented by offshore betting sites would require these same competitions to make themselves available to domestic bookmakers. Lawmakers should give serious thought to removing the lawful-to-bet requirement from match-fixing laws. Ergo, if the Australian betting market is of little concern to international match-fixers, then it should not be relevant to match-fixing laws either.

  198. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193J (emphasis added).

  199. Stensholt, John (2018) Bitcoin betting set to be banned by wagering authorities. Australian Financial Review (online), 4 February 2018. https://www.afr.com/business/gambling/bitcoin-betting-set-to-be-banned-20180204-h0tfi9.

  200. Nevada Revised Statutes § 463.01962 (2013) (definition of ‘wager’).

  201. Nevada Revised Statutes § 463.01862 (2013) (definition of ‘representative of value’).

  202. Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act, 31 USC §§ 5361–5367 (2006) § 5362(A).

  203. See, e.g. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193H; Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) s 195B.

  204. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193I.

  205. Unlawful Gambling Act 1998 (NSW) s 4 (definition of ‘gambling’).

  206. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 4 (definition of ‘bet’).

  207. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth) s 4 (definition of ‘gambling service’).

  208. Macquarie Concise Dictionary (Macquarie, 2012) 112.

  209. Macquarie Concise Dictionary (Macquarie, 2012) 1416.

  210. Huang (2015, p. 2098).

  211. Yanner v Eaton [1999] HCA 53 [17].

  212. See, e.g. Crimes Act 1900 (NSW) s 193N; Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) s 195C.

  213. Macquarie Concise Dictionary (Macquarie, 2012) 457.

  214. Macquarie Concise Dictionary (Macquarie, 2012) 457.

  215. Australian Government: Department of Social Services (2016, p. 49).

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    Jack Kerr

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Appendices

Appendix 1

See Table 2.

Table 2 Analysis of crypto-wagering sites
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Appendix 2

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Fig. 1
figure 1

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Kerr, J. How can legislators protect sport from the integrity threat posed by cryptocurrencies?. Int Sports Law J 18, 79–97 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40318-018-0132-0

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