Abstract
Nitrate is a common pollutant in most of Asian countries, notably in underdeveloped countries like Afghanistan. From the very first hydrochemical studies, high nitrate level was of great concern. Also, multiple investigations have approved the concern as they showed dangerous content of nitrate in water resources in Afghanistan. Water projects have so far focused mainly on Kabul and then its chemical composition more defined rather than other main cities. The major source of nitrate in Kabul city is domestic sewage, including cesspits and latrines. Moreover, growing population is another major concern because more than 5 million live in the city, while the city’s potential is less than 2 million. Kabul city has suffered from an ineffective sewage network, and this imposed a high load of nitrate into the Kabul’s groundwater system. Studies showed that high percentage of samples—on average approx. 30%—had nitrate concentrations exceeding World Health Organization and Afghanistan National Drinking Water Standard limits, which is 50 mg/L. Then, this leads to a set of public health problems in Kabul’s residents. Hydrogeochemically, NO3 formation processes and following hydrogeochemical reactions are completely explained. In terms of denitrification, based on Kabul city condition and comprehensive assessments, permeable reactive barrier technique is highly recommended. The review provides a solid and knowledge-based framework for further projects and researchers. It increases public and global awareness concerning the extent of nitrate pollution in Kabul city and can serve as valuable reference for similar areas around the globe.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to express our deep gratitude to Dr. Georg Houben, Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Hannover, Germany, for sharing hydrochemical data of Kabul basin. Also, we thank anonymous reviewers for their careful reading of our manuscript and their insightful comments and suggestions.
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Mahaqi, A., Mehiqi, M., Moheghy, M.A. et al. Nitrate pollution in Kabul water supplies, Afghanistan; sources and chemical reactions: a review. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19, 6925–6934 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03551-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03551-4