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Thermochemical treatment of mixed mandarin peel and algae via microwave and H3PO4 activation: process optimization and adsorption mechanism for methylene blue dye

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Abstract

Herein, blended mandarin (Citrus reticulata) peel (MP) and algae (AG) biomass were thermochemically treated (TCTMPAG) to yield a cost-effective and renewable adsorbent for removal of methylene blue (MB), a known toxic cationic dye. The preparation included microwave irradiation, in conjunction with H3PO4 activation at 800 W for 15 min in a nitrogen atmosphere. The adsorption characteristics of TCTMPAG were studied by assessing its capacity to remove methylene blue (MB) dye from aqueous media. The Box-Behnken design (BBD) was used to optimize key adsorption factors, namely A: TCTMPAG dosage (0.02–0.12 g/0.1 L), B: pH (4–10), and C: contact period (30–420) min. The BBD model determined that the highest elimination of MB (98.4%) occurred for a TCTMPAG dosage of 0.12 g/0.1L, pH 10, and a contact time of 225 min. The MB dye adsorption rate profile conformed to a pseudo-second-order (PSO) model, while the Langmuir and Temkin model adequately represented the equilibrium adsorption profile (R2 = 0.97). The highest adsorption capacity (qmax) of TCTMPAG for MB dye was determined to be 48.5 mg/g. Various contributions to the adsorption mechanism include various contributions such as electrostatic forces, H-bonding, pore filling, and π-π stacking onto the TCTMPAG adsorbent surface.

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 Data Availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Shah Alam, Malaysia for the research facilities. The author (Zeid A. ALOthman) is grateful to the Researchers Supporting Project No. (RSP2024R1), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Funding

The author (Zeid A. ALOthman) is grateful to the Researchers Supporting Project No. (RSP2024R1), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

    Ali H. Jawad & Siti Nabihah Jumadi

  2. Advanced Biomaterials and Carbon Development Research Group, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

    Ali H. Jawad

  3. Environmental and Atmospheric Sciences Research Group, Scientific Research Center, Al-Ayen University, Thi-Qar, Nasiriyah, 64001, Iraq

    Ali H. Jawad

  4. Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, 11451, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

    Zeid A. ALOthman

  5. Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5C9, Canada

    Lee D. Wilson

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Contributions

Ali H. Jawad: conceptualization, resources, visualization, supervision, project administration, writing—review and editing. Siti Nabihah Jumadi: formal analysis, validation, data curation, methodology, software, writing—original. Zeid A. ALOthman: formal analysis, validation, visualization. Lee D. Wilson: writing—review and editing, visualization.

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Correspondence to Ali H. Jawad.

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Jawad, A.H., Jumadi, S.N., ALOthman, Z.A. et al. Thermochemical treatment of mixed mandarin peel and algae via microwave and H3PO4 activation: process optimization and adsorption mechanism for methylene blue dye. Biomass Conv. Bioref. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05598-y

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