Abstract
Introduction
Structural stigma, or stigma at a society or policy level, has a negative impact on the mental and physical health of sexual and gender minorities (SGMs). In particular, political leaders and the policies they enact can limit the resources and safety of SGM. Following the 2016 presidential election, there was fear of an increase in structural stigma in the USA. However, research on the specifics of anticipated structural stigma is lacking.
Methods
Using data from 187 participants who completed an online study conducted from 2016 to 2017, we used inductive thematic coding to examine anticipated structural stigma.
Results
We found four themes: (1) anticipated negative consequences of specific anti-SGM political figures, (2) concerns about the loss of existing SGM rights, (3) fear of new anti-SGM policies, and (4) fears of vulnerability related to limited existing protections.
Conclusion
We discuss how these themes tie into each other, map them onto existing structural stigma work, and use laws and policies that have been passed or proposed in the past 4 years to describe how these anticipated stigmas have become enacted.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agerholm, H. (2016). Everyone appointed to Donald Trump’s cabinet so far has opposed LGBT rights. The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/donald-trump-cabinet-appointments-lgbt-records-stances-president-elect-white-house-a7446886.html
American Civil Liberties Union. (2018). Past legislation affecting LGBT rights across the country (2018). https://www.aclu.org/past-legislation-affecting-lgbt-rights-across-country-2018
American Civil Liberties Union. (2019). Past legislation affecting LGBT rights across country 2019. https://www.aclu.org/past-legislation-affecting-lgbt-rights-across-country-2019
American Civil Liberties Union. (2020). Legislation affecting LGBT rights across the country. https://www.aclu.org/legislation-affecting-lgbt-rights-across-country
American Psychological Association. (2017). Many Americans stressed about future of our nation, new APA Stress in America survey reveals. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/02/stressed-nation
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research, 3(2), 77–101.
Brooks, V. R. (1981). Minority stress and lesbian women. Lexington Books.
Byne, W. (2017). Sustaining progress toward LGBT health equity: A time for vigilance, advocacy, and scientific inquiry. LGBT Health, 4, 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2016.0211.
Change Notice 5200.04 CN-1 – Transgender Offender Manual. (2018). https://www.bop.gov/policy/progstat/5200-04-cn-1.pdf
Conron, K. J., & O’Neill, K. (2020). Prohibiting gender-affirming medical care for youth. The Williams Institute. https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/bans-trans-youth-health-care/
Cornell University Public Policy Research Portal. (2017). What does the scholarly research say about the effect of gender transition on transgender well-being? https://whatweknow.inequality.cornell.edu/topics/lgbt-equality/what-does-the-scholarly-research-say-about-the-well-being-of-transgender-people/
DTM-19-004 – Military Service by Transgender Persons and Persons with Gender Dysphoria. (2020). https://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/DD/issuances/dtm/DTM%2019-004.PDF?ver=2020-03-17-140438-090
Flores, A. R., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Gates, G. J. (2018). Identifying psychological responses of stigmatized groups to referendums. PNAS, 115(15), 3816–3821. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1712897115.
Frost, D. M. (2011). Social stigma and its consequences for the socially stigmatized. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 824–839. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00394.x.
Frost, D. M., Lehavot, K., & Meyer, I. H. (2015). Minority stress and physical health among sexual minority individuals. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 38, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-013-9523-8.
GLAAD. (2020). Trump accountability project. https://www.glaad.org/trump
Gonzales, G., & McKay, T. (2017). What an emerging Trump administration means for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health. Health Equity, 1, 83–86. https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2017.0002.
Gonzalez, K. A., Pulice-Farrow, L., & Galupo, M. P. (2018). “My aunt unfriended me:” Narratives of GLBTQ family relationships post 2016 presidential election. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 14, 61–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2017.1420845.
Gonzalez, K. A., Ramirez, J. L., & Galupo, M. P. (2018). Increase in GLBTQ minority stress following the 2016 US presidential election. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 14, 130–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2017.1420849.
H.R.2965 – Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Repeal Act of 2010. (2010). https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/2965
H.R.5 – Equality Act. (2019). https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/5/text/eh
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2014). Structural stigma and the health of lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 127–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414523775.
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2016). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. American Psychologist, 71, 742–751. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000068.
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2017). Structural stigma and health. In B. Major, J. F. Dovidio, & B. G. Link (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of stigma, discrimination, and health (pp. 105-121). Oxford University Press.
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Link, B. G. (2014). Introduction to the special issue on structural stigma and health. Social Science & Medicine, 103, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.12.017.
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Rutherford, C., McKetta, S., Prins, S. J., & Keyes, K. M. (2020). Structural stigma and all-cause mortality among sexual minorities: Differences by sexual behavior?. Social Science & Medicine, 244, 112463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112463
Health and Human Services. (2018). HHS announces new Conscience and Religious Freedom Division. https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2018/01/18/hhs-ocr-announces-new-conscience-and-religious-freedom-division.html
Hirsch, J. K., Hirsch, K. K., Mann, A., Williams, S. L., Dodd, J., Cohn, T. J., & Chang, E. C. (2017). Post-election concerns about rights and safety are related to the mental health of LGBTQ communities: This is not fake news. Forward Newsletter, 257.
Hirsch, J. K., Kaniuka, A., Brooks, B., Hirsch, K. K., Mann, A., Williams, S. L., & Dodd, J. (2017). What the Trump? Anticipated rejection and concern about rights are associated with suicide risk in LGBTQ communities, but can resilience trump risk?. The Clinical Psychologist, 70(2), 17-20. https://www.div12.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/tCP-May-2017.pdf
Indiana State Bill 101 - Religious Freedom Restoration Act. (2015). https://www.indianahouserepublicans.com/clientuploads/PDF/RFRA/SEA101%20RFRA%20Law.pdf
Kaniuka, A., Pugh, K. C., Jordan, M., Brooks, B., Dodd, J., Mann, A. K., et al. (2019). Stigma and suicide risk among the LGBTQ population: Are anxiety and depression to blame and can connectedness to the LGBTQ community help? Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 23, 205–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2018.1560385.
Kralik, J. (2019). “Bathroom bill” legislative tracking. National Conference of State Legislatures. https://www.ncsl.org/research/education/-bathroom-bill-legislative-tracking635951130.aspx
Kreighbaum, A. (2017). Transgender protections withdrawn. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2017/02/23/trump-administration-reverses-title-ix-guidance-transgender-protections
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674.
Meyer, I. H. (2016). Does an improved social environment for sexual and gender minorities have implications for a new minority stress research agenda? Psychology of Sexualities Review, 7, 81–90.
Meyer, I. H., Ouellette, S. C., Haile, R., & McFarlane, T. A. (2011). “We’d be free”: Narratives of life without homophobia, racism, or sexism. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 8, 204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-011-0063-0.
Meyer, I. H., & Wilson, P. A. (2009). Sampling lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014587.
National Center for Transgender Equality. (2017). HUD purges publications that helped shelters keep transgender people safe. https://transequality.org/press/releases/hud-purges-publications-that-helped-shelters-keep-transgender-people-safe
National Low Income Housing Coalition. (2019). Democratic representatives condemn HUD actions undermining housing first model and safety of LGBTQ community. https://nlihc.org/resource/democratic-representatives-condemn-hud-actions-undermining-housing-first-model-and-safety
North Carolina House Bill 142. (2017). https://www.ncleg.net/Sessions/2017/Bills/House/HTML/H142v5.html
North Carolina House Bill 2 - Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act. (2016). https://www.ncleg.gov/Sessions/2015E2/Bills/House/PDF/H2v0.pdf
North Carolina House Bill 65 – Marriage Amendment Reaffirmation Act. (2019). https://www.ncleg.gov/BillLookup/2019/H65
North Carolina House Bill 780 – Uphold Historical Marriage Act. (2017). https://www.ncleg.gov/BillLookUp/2017/HB%20780
Obergefell v Hodges, 576 U.S. ___ (2015). https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/14-556_3204.pdf
Pachankis, J. E., & Bränström, R. (2018). Hidden from happiness: Structural stigma, sexual orientation concealment, and life satisfaction across 28 countries. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 86, 403–415. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000299.
Pachankis, J. E., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Hickson, F. C., Weatherburn, P. J., Berg, R., Marcus, U., & Schmidt, A. (2015). Hidden from health: Structural stigma, sexual orientation concealment, and HIV across 38 countries in the European MSM Internet Survey. AIDS, 29, 1239–1246. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000724.
Pachankis, J. E., Sullivan, T. J., Feinstein, B. A., & Newcomb, M. E. (2018). Young adult gay and bisexual men’s stigma experiences and mental health: An 8-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 54(7), 1381–1392. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000518.
Perez-Brumer, A., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Oldenburg, C. E., & Bockting, W. (2015). Individual- and structural-level risk factors for suicide attempts among transgender adults. Behavioral Medicine, 41, 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2015.1028322.
Pew Research Center. (2019). Attitudes on same-sex marriage. https://www.pewforum.org/fact-sheet/changing-attitudes-on-gay-marriage/
Quinn, D. M., & Chaudoir, S. R. (2009). Living with a concealable stigmatized identity: The impact of anticipated stigma, centrality, salience, and cultural stigma on psychological distress and health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 634–651. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015815.
Quinn, D. M., & Earnshaw, V. A. (2013). Concealable stigmatized identity and psychological well-being. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 40-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12005
Riggle, E. D., Rostosky, S. S., Drabble, L., Veldhuis, C. B., & Hughes, T. L. (2018). Sexual minority women’s and gender-diverse individuals’ hope and empowerment responses to the 2016 presidential election. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 14, 152–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/1550428X.2017.1420853.
Riggle, E. D., Rostosky, S. S., & Horne, S. G. (2009). Marriage amendments and lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals in the 2006 election. Sexuality Research & Social Policy, 6, 80. https://doi.org/10.1525/srsp.2009.6.1.80.
RIN 0945-AA10 – Protecting Statutory Conscience Rights in Health Care; Delegations of Authority. (2019). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/05/21/2019-09667/protecting-statutory-conscience-rights-in-health-care-delegations-of-authority
RIN 1250-AA07 – Implementation of Executive Order 13672 Prohibiting Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity by Contractors and Subcontractors. (2014). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2014/12/09/2014-28902/implementation-of-executive-order-13672-prohibiting-discrimination-based-on-sexual-orientation-and
RIN 1250-AA08 – Affirmative Action and Nondiscrimination Obligations of Federal Contractors and Subcontractors: TRICARE and Certain Other Health Care Providers. (2019). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/11/06/2019-23700/affirmative-action-and-nondiscrimination-obligations-of-federal-contractors-and-subcontractors
RIN 1250-AA09 – Implementing Legal Requirements Regarding the Equal Opportunity Clause’s Religious Exemption. (2019). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/08/15/2019-17472/implementing-legal-requirements-regarding-the-equal-opportunity-clauses-religious-exemption
RIN 1840-AD36 – Student Assistance General Provisions, The Secretary’s Recognition of Accrediting Agencies, The Secretary’s Recognition Procedures for State Agencies. (2019). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/11/01/2019-23129/student-assistance-general-provisions-the-secretarys-recognition-of-accrediting-agencies-the
RIN 2506-AC53 – Revised Requirements Under Community Planning and Development Housing Programs (FR-6152). (2019). https://www.reginfo.gov/public/do/eAgendaViewRule?pubId=201904&RIN=2506-AC53
Rostosky, S. S., Riggle, E. D. B., Horne, S. G., Denton, F. N., & Huellemeier, J. D. (2010). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals’ psychological reactions to amendments denying access to civil marriage. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80, 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01033.x.
Rostosky, S. S., Riggle, E. D., Horne, S. G., & Miller, A. D. (2009). Marriage amendments and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(1), 56–66. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013609.
Salway, T., Gesink, D., Ibrahim, S., Ferlatte, O., Rhodes, A. E., Brennan, D. J., et al. (2018). Evidence of multiple mediating pathways in associations between constructs of stigma and self-reported suicide attempts in a cross-sectional study of gay and bisexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 1145–1161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1019-0.
Santiago, J. (2017). The transgender military ban: A major step back for LGBT rights. Loyola Public Interest Law Reporter, 56.
Simonoff, C., Wang, T., & Cahill, S. (2019). In its third year in office, the Trump administration dramatically expanded discriminatory anti-LGBT policies. The Fenway Institute. https://fenwayhealth.org/wp-content/uploads/Trump-Administration-Year-3-Brief.pdf
South Carolina House Bill 4949 – Marriage and Constitution Restoration Act. (2018). https://www.scstatehouse.gov/sess122_2017-2018/bills/4949.htm
South Dakota House Bill 1215. (2020). https://sdlegislature.gov/legislative_session/bills/Bill.aspx?Bill=1215&Session=2020
Stack, L. (2016). Mike Pence and “conversion therapy”: A history. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/30/us/politics/mike-pence-and-conversion-therapy-a-history.html
Tennessee House Bill 1369 – Tennessee Natural Marriage Defense Act. (2019). https://legiscan.com/TN/bill/HB1369/2019
Tennessee House Bill 2410 – Disentanglement Act. (2020). https://legiscan.com/TN/bill/HB2410/2019
Tennessee House Bill 892 – Tennessee Natural Marriage Defense Act. (2017). https://legiscan.com/TN/bill/HB0892/2017
Trevor Project. (2016). Crisis contracts from youth to Trevor Project surge immediately following the election. https://www.thetrevorproject.org/trvr_press/crisis-contacts-from-youth-to-the-trevor-project-surge-immediately-following-the-election/
Turban, J. L., King, D., Carswell, J. M., & Keuroghlain, A. S. (2020). Pubertal suppression for transgender youth and risk of suicidal ideation. Pediatrics, 145, e20191725. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1725.
Turner, C. & Kamenetz, A. (2018). The education department says it won’t act on transgender student bathroom access. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/ed/2018/02/12/585181704/the-education-department-says-it-wont-act-on-transgender-student-bathroom-access
Veldhuis, C. B., Drabble, L., Riggle, E. D. B., Wootton, A. R., & Hughes, T. L. (2018a). “We won’t go back into the closet now without one hell of a fight”: Effects of the 2016 presidential election on sexual minority women’s and gender minorities’ stigma-related concerns. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 15, 12–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-017-0305-x.
Veldhuis, C. B., Drabble, L., Riggle, E. D., Wootton, A. R., & Hughes, T. L. (2018b). “I fear for my safety, but want to show bravery for others”: Violence and discrimination concerns among transgender and gender-nonconforming individuals after the 2016 presidential election. Violence and Gender, 5, 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2017.0032.
Wagner, S. (2019). Re: Request for deviation or exception from HHS regulations 45 CFR § 75.300(c). https://governor.sc.gov/sites/default/files/Documents/newsroom/HHS%20Response%20Letter%20to%20McMaster.pdf
Whitehead, J., Shaver, J., & Stephenson, R. (2016). Outness, stigma, and primary health care utilization among rural LGBT populations. PloS one, 11(1).
Williams, D. R., & Medlock, M. M. (2017). Health effects of dramatic societal events—ramifications of the recent presidential election. New England Journal of Medicine, 376, 2295–2299. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMms1702111.
Williams, S. L., Mann, A. K., & Fredrick, E. G. (2017). Proximal minority stress, psychosocial resources, and health in sexual minorities. Journal of Social Issues, 73, 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12230.
Wyoming House Bill 167 – Marriage and Constitution Restoration Act. (2018). https://legiscan.com/WY/bill/HB0167/2018
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
This study was performed in compliance with ethical standards for research involving human participants as outlined by the Declaration of Helsinki. It was approved by the Institutional Review Board of East Tennessee State University.
Informed Consent
Electronic informed consent was gathered from all participants in the study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fredrick, E.G., Mann, A.K., Brooks, B.D. et al. Anticipated to Enacted: Structural Stigma Against Sexual and Gender Minorities Following the 2016 Presidential Election. Sex Res Soc Policy 19, 345–354 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-021-00547-0
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-021-00547-0