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Water conflicts in Hetian District, Xinjiang, during the Republic of China period

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Abstract

We examine Xie and Yang’s edited volume (published in 2011) titled Hetian diqu minguo shiqi luzhou nongye yu shengtai huanjing dangan xuanji (selected archives compilation of oases agriculture and ecological environment in Hetian District in the Republic of China period), which is a compilation of government documents produced between 1937 and 1949 in the Hetian District, in Xinjiang, China. Drawing on information in the documents, we discuss the water regulations and various types of water conflicts occurring at local level, and highlight the main problems of water management in irrigation agriculture in the dryland areas of the district. Under the strict government policy of opening up wasteland to increase the amount of cultivatable land, regulations for water distribution at local level were either neglected, which was most often the case, or they were revised. In disregarding land-rich but water-scarce situations, the state politics on land management held definitive power over locally administered water-distribution regulations. Water conflicts occurred due to changes in both the amount of land available for irrigation agriculture and the changing water regulations. Thus, the policy of opening up wasteland was the main reason for the water conflicts that occurred in Hetian District, during the Republic of China period.

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Notes

  1. 1 ha = 15 mu.

  2. Shen Yuling was responsible for the translations of all quotations into English.

  3. Article titled ‘通令各县实力开渠垦荒文 [A general order to all counties to practice actively in opening canal and wasteland]’ (Wenhai Publishing House 1965, pp. 1148–1150).

  4. Article titled ‘呈请将县知事刘人琰等六员名分别奖给存记勋章文 [A petition for nominating Liu Renyan and other five heads of counties as candidates to be awarded meritorious medals]’ (Wenhai Publishing House 1965, pp. 1167–1174).

  5. Hetian District Archives No. 840 (2–2), titled ‘和阗区洛浦县政府调查二十八年度五谷子种地亩统计表 [A statistical table on cropland area in 1939 investigated by the Luopu County in Hetian District]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 125–127).

  6. Hetian District Archives No. 897, titled ‘洛浦县垦荒水利调查表 [Fact-finding report on opening up wasteland and water conservancy in Luopu County]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 390–392).

  7. Hetian District Archives No. 853 (2–2), titled ‘洛浦县造赍民国三十三年度播种面积及籽种调查表 [Fact-finding report on cropland area in 1944 in Luopu County]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 136).

  8. Xiang is a rural administrative unit below county level but above village.

  9. Hetian District Archives No. 907 (3–1), titled ‘和阗县和平乡(司马瓦提),洛浦县富民、新育乡(塔瓦克里)水利纠纷解决办法 [A way to solve water conservancy conflict in Heping xiang (Simawati) in Hetian County, Fumin and Xinyu xiang (Dawake) in Luopu County]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 549–550).

  10. Hetian District Archives No. 907 (3–1), titled ‘签呈(水利纠纷) [A brief document submitted to a superior (water conservancy conflict)]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 548–549).

  11. Hetian District Archives No. 907 (3–1), titled ‘为遵令解决皮山水利纠纷一案,并附切结一张,祈鉴核备查由 [In obedience to an order from higher authority to solve water conservancy conflict in Pishan County, a piece of outcome paper was attached, and it was requested for checking and future reference]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 586).

  12. Hetian District Archives No. 907 (3–1), titled ‘为派和阗艾院长、皮山高局长赴皮会同县府解决水利纠纷,处事得力,应准传令嘉奖由 [An order to send Ai and Gao to Pishan County to solve the water conflict, [and they] handled the affair efficiently and should be rewarded]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 586–587).

  13. Hetian District Archives No. 858 (2–1), titled ‘和阗县政府公函 (水利纠纷) [Official document of Hetian County (water conservancy conflict)]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 544–545).

  14. Hetian District Archives No. 903 (3–1), titled ‘和阗县属一、二、三区水利纠纷 [Water conservancy conflict in Village No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 in Hetian County]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 545).

  15. Hetian District Archives No. 897 (2–1), titled ‘函请案据敝县英阿瓦提、上素巴等庄户民禀称,民等照章之水被墨玉大牙四卡力村民尼牙子等堵截,影响耕种。应即遴派水利会长那士尔等前往会同办理由 [An official letter from the head of Hetian County describing a petition from a group of people in Village Y in Hetian County who accused people in Village D in Moyu County of blocking water that according to the water regulation belonged to Village Y, [and how the] president of the water conservancy association should immediately be sent to the place and resolve the problem jointly with other people]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 540–541).

  16. Hetian District Archives No. 901 (2–1), titled ‘为呈转多鲁、巷沟牙、热合满甫3 庄户民亦不拉引等民众等禀称,更改旧日水章,分配水利由 [To submit a report for the demand of people in three villages to ask for the revision of the old water regulation and redistribution of water]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 563–564).

  17. Hetian District Archives No. 905 (2–1), titled ‘洛浦县村民呈状(洛浦县属多鲁村民水利纠纷) [A petition submitted by people in Luopu County (water conservancy conflict in Village D in Luopu County)]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 570–571).

  18. Hetian District Archives No. 908 (3–3), titled ‘为呈复职县属哈拉塔尔孜水利纠葛一案,已经拟平了结,请备查由 [To submit the result of a water conservancy conflict in Village H in Pishan County, and ask for future checking and verification]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 587).

  19. Hetian District Archives No. 1695, titled ‘新疆和阗区于阗县政府快邮代电(水利纠纷) [A letter sent by Yutian County government to the head of Hetian Administrative Region Chief Executive Office, Xinjiang (water conservancy conflict)]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 590).

  20. Hetian District Archives No. 903 (3–1), titled ‘于阗县政府呈文 (哈浪沟村与达木沟村水利纠纷) [A petition submitted by Yutian County government (water conservancy conflict between Village H and Village D)]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 590–591).

  21. Hetian District Archives No. 903 (3–1), titled ‘为呈报该县所属哈浪沟水源由达木沟溢流之山水灌用,现达木沟民众完全截流留,祈饬勿得堵塞渠道一案准令策勒县照办由 [A report about water that was blocked completely by people in Village D, [and] the head of Hetian Administrative Region Chief Executive Office asked the head of Cele County not to block the canal]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 591).

  22. Hetian District Archives No. 907 (3–1), titled ‘策勒县达木科瓦、于阗县卡勒克,阿克沙衣河水利纠纷解决办法 [A way to solve water conflict between Cele County and Yutian County]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 595–596).

  23. Hetian District Archives No. 908 (3–1), titled ‘1.据于阗县府呈报,大通镇人民水利被该县达玛沟人民侵用,仰切实查办由。2.指复建字第38号呈文仰遵办由 [1. A report by Yutian County government, that water was blocked by people in Village D in Cele County. 2. To comply and implement with Document No. 38.]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 602).

  24. Hetian District Archives No. 904 (2–2), titled ‘为呈报县属一二区与五区发生水利纠纷经过情形祈备查由 [To report a water conflict that happened between Village No. 1 and No. 2, and Village No. 5 in Pishan County, and ask for future checking and verification]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 582–584).

  25. Hetian District Archives No. 904 (2–2), titled ‘为呈报皮山县属一、二两区与五区水利纠纷 [To report a water conflict between Village No.1 and No. 2, and Village No. 5]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 584).

  26. Hetian District Archives No. 903 (3–1), titled ‘为代电报,职县商讨改决马力哈力汗水利困难情形祈核示由 [To discuss a difficult water situation in Village M in Cele County and ask for instructions]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 593–594).

  27. Hetian District Archives No. 897 (2–1), titled ‘呈复遵令查明职县属波内庄并无开发新水利,及更掘渠道分渠灌田之可能,并废弃原有熟垦地数千亩各缘由祈鉴核由 [To submit a report in obedience to orders from above, to investigate whether there was any new water that could be developed, the possibility to dig a new branch canal to irrigate land, and the reasons for abandoning several thousand mu of cultivated lands, and to ask a higher authority to judge and check]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 579–580).

  28. Hetian District Archives No. 897 (2–1), titled ‘为报波内及叶县属哈拉巴什满两庄水利纠纷由 [To report water conservancy conflict in Village B in Pishan County and Village H in Yecheng County]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, p. 580).

  29. Hetian District Archives No. 898 (2–2), titled ‘叶城、皮山县政府呈文 (奉令勘察波哈两庄水利情形及解决办法) [A petition submitted by Yecheng and Pishan County governments (under order to investigate the water situations in Villages B in Pishan County and Village H in Yecheng County, and way to solve the problem)]’ (Xie and Yang 2011, pp. 580–581).

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Acknowledgments

We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and Catriona Turner for her help in correcting the language.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, South Beijing Road 818, 830011, Ürümqi, China

    Shen Yuling & Xi Chen

  2. Department of Geography, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491, Trondheim, Norway

    Haakon Lein

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  1. Shen Yuling
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Correspondence to Shen Yuling.

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Yuling, S., Lein, H. & Chen, X. Water conflicts in Hetian District, Xinjiang, during the Republic of China period. Water Hist 8, 77–94 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12685-016-0153-2

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