Abstract
The disposal of massive waste soils is troublesome during urban excavation projects, which is commonly dumped temporarily and transported to the suburban landfills. Meanwhile, energy-intensive materials (e.g. plain concrete) are being used in the foundation trench backfill, resulting in high engineering costs and carbon emissions. Therefore, it is of significant economic and environmental benefits to try to convert waste excavated soils into qualified materials for trench backfill. To satisfy engineering requirement, the contradiction between flowability and strength of very fine aggregates should be addressed. This paper examines the feasibility of preparing controlled low strength material (CLSM) using excavated waste soils, where polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PCE) is used to improve workability of the materials. The engineering properties of soil-based CLSM are experimentally investigated. The results indicate that PCE improves the flowability of CLSM remarkably, which increases by half with addition of 1.0% PCE. The used dosage of PCE is higher than those in concretes due to intercalation behavior with clay minerals. The PCE has a negative effect on early strength of CLSM but the effect becomes positive with increasing curing time and more sufficient hydration reactions. The positive effect of PCE on hydration reactions has been demonstrated by XRD and SEM analysis. Moreover, construction cost analysis shows that to use waste soils to prepare CLSM has significant economic benefits, in spite of the high price of PCE.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
ASTM (2003) Specification for concrete aggregates. ASTM C33, West, Conshohocken
ASTM (2004a) Standard test method for flow consistency of controlled low strength material (CLSM). ASTM C33, West Conshohocken
ASTM (2004b) Standard test method for measurement of hydraulic conductivity of saturated porous materials using a flexible wall permeameter. ASTM D5084, West Conshoshocken
ASTM (2010) Standard test method for preparation and testing of controlled low strength material (CLSM) test cylinders. ASTM D4832, West Conshohocken
ASTM (2011) Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (Unified Soil Classification System). ASTM D2487, West Conshoshocken
ASTM (2016) Standard test method for expansion and bleeding of freshly mixed grouts for preplaced-aggregate concrete in the laboratory. ASTM C940, West Conshohocken
Bian X, Zeng LL, Ji F, Xie M, Hong ZS (2022) Plasticity role in strength behavior of cement-phosphogypsum stabilized soils. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 14(6):1977–1988
Chapelier AB, Saout GL, Azema N, Bitouri YE (2022) Effect of polycarboxylate superplasticizer on hydration and properties of belite ye’elimite ferrite cement paste. Constr Build Mater 322:126483
Ding JW, Wan X, Zhao HR, Guo C, Jiao N (2022) Laboratory investigation of cemented silt improved with bentonite and phosphogypsum in DCM walls. Eur J Environ Civ Eng 26(14):6975–6992
Do TM, Kang GO, Go GH, Kim YS (2019a) Evaluation of coal ash-based CLSM made with cementless binder as a thermal grout for borehole heat exchangers. J Mater Civ Eng 31(6):04019072
Do TM, Do AN, Kang GO, Kim YS (2019b) Utilization of marine dredged soil in controlled low-strength material used as a thermal grout in geothermal systems. Constr Build Mater 215:613–622
Du LX, Folliard KJ, Trejo D (2002) Effects of constituent materials and quantities on water demand and compressive strength of controlled low-strength material. J Mater Civ Eng 14(6):485–495
Finno RJ, Kim S, Lewis J, Winkle NV (2019) Observed performance of a sheetpile-supported excavation in Chicago clays. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 145(2):05018005
Gee NP, Ban CC, Poh NE, Wei OC, Heng LK (2020) The influence of main and side chain densities of PCE superplasticizer on engineering properties and microstructure development of slag and fly ash ternary blended cement concrete. Constr Build Mater 242:118103
Ghanad DA, Soliman AM (2021) Bio-based alkali-activated controlled low strength material: engineering properties. Constr Build Mater 279:122445
Hsieh PG, Ou CY (2016) Simplified approach to estimate the maximum wall deflection for deep excavations with cross walls in clay under the undrained condition. Acta Geotech 11(1):177–189
Kaliyavaradhan SK, Ling TC, Guo MZ, Mo KH (2019) Waste resources recycling in controlled low-strength material (CLSM): a critical review on plastic properties. J Environ Manag 241:383–396
Katz A, Kovler K (2004) Utilization of industrial by-products for the production of controlled low strength materials (CLSM). Waste Manag 24:501–512
Kim YT, Kang HS (2011) Engineering characteristics of rubber-added lightweight soil as a flowable backfill material. J Mater Civ Eng 23(9):1289–1294
Kim YS, Do TM, Kim MJ, Kim BJ, Kim HK (2018) Utilization of by-product in controlled low-strength material for geothermal systems: engineering performances, environmental impact, and cost analysis. J Clean Prod 172:909–920
Lachemi M, Hossain KMA, Shehata M, Thaha W (2008) Controlled low strength materials incorporating cement kiln dust from various sources. Cem Concr Compos 30(5):381–392
Lai FW, Zhang NN, Liu SY, Sun YX, Li YL (2021) Ground movements induced by installation of twin large diameter deeply-buried caissons: 3D numerical modeling. Acta Geotech 16(9):2933–2961
Lee NK, Kim HK, Park IS, Lee HK (2013) Alkali-activated, cementless, controlled low-strength materials (CLSM) utilizing industrial by-product. Constr Build Mater 49:738–746
Lei L, Zhang L (2022) Synthesis and performance of a non-air entraining polycarboxylate superplasticizer. Cem Concr Res 159:106853
Ling TC, Kaliyavaradhan SK, Poon CS (2018) Global perspective on application of controlled low-strength material (CLSM) for trench backfilling-An overview. Constr Build Mater 158:535–548
Noaman AT, Abed MS, Hamead AAA (2020) Production of polycarboxylate-ether superplasticizer (PCE) coated sand with modified hardened properties in cement mortar. Constr Build Mater 245:118442
Öncü Ş, Bilsel H (2018) Utilization of waste marble to enhance volume change and strength characteristics of sand-stabilized expansive soil. Environ Earth Sci 77:461
Pierce CE, Blackwell MC (2003) Potential of scrap tire rubber as lightweight aggregate in flowable fill. Waste Manag 23:197–208
Plank J, Bian H (2010) Method to assess the quality of casein used as superplasticizer in self-levelling compounds. Cem Concr Res 40(5):710–715
Puppala AJ, Chittoori B, Raavi A (2015) Flowability and density characteristics of controlled low-strength material using native high-plasticity clay. J Mater Civ Eng 27(1):06014026
Qian JS, Hu YY, Zhang JK, Xiao WX, Ling JM (2019) Evaluation the performance of controlled low strength material made of excess excavated soil. J Clean Prod 214(20):79–88
Raghavendra T, Udayashankar BC (2014) Flow and strength characteristics of CLSM using ground granulated blast furnace slag. J Mater Civ Eng 26(9):04014050
Ricarda S, Matthias M, Nancy B, Thienel KC (2021) Evaluation of zeta potential of calcined clays and time-dependent flowability of blended cements with customized polycarboxylate-based superplasticizers. Constr Build Mater 308:125061
Sauvaget B, Fouquet CD, Guern CL, Brunet JF, Belbeze S, Roussel H (2020) Anticipating geochemical compatibility to reuse excavated soils at urban scale: are usual statistical tools effective? J Geochem Explor 213:106522
Shi XS, Liu KK, Yin JH (2021) Effect of initial density, particle shape, and confining stress on the critical state behavior of weathered gap-graded granular soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 147(2):04020160
Sivrikaya O, Kıyıldı KR, Karaca Z (2014) Recycling waste from natural stone processing plants to stabilise clayey soil. Environ Earth Sci 71:4397–4407
Tan HB, Gu BQ, Ma BG, Li X, Lin CL, Li XG (2016) Mechanism of intercalation of polycarboxylate superplasticizer into montmorillonite. Appl Clay Sci 129:40–46
Wan X, Ding JW, Jiao N, Sun S, Liu JY, Guo QY (2022) Observed performance of long zoned excavation with suspended waterproof curtain in Yangtze River floodplain. J Perform Constr Facil 36(3):04022018
Wang H, Zhang S, Wu B (2018) Experimental study on selection of early-strength agent for low-strength cementitious materials prepared with manganese tailings. Environ Earth Sci 77:231
Yan DYS, Tang IY, Lo IMC (2014) Development of controlled low-strength material derived from beneficial reuse of bottom ash and sediment for green construction. Constr Build Mater 64:201–207
Yi YL, Gu LY, Liu SY, Jin F (2016) Magnesia reactivity on activating efficacy for ground granulated blast furnace slag for soft clay stabilisation. Appl Clay Sci 126:57–62
Zhang RJ, Santoso AM, Tan TS, Phoon FKK (2013) Strength of high water-content marine clay stabilized by low amount of cement. J Geotecton Geoenviron Eng 139(12):2170–2181
Zhang K, Pan LS, Li JC, Lin C, Cao Y, Xu N, Pang SJ (2019) How does adsorption behavior of polycarboxylate superplasticizer effect rheology and flowability of cement paste with polypropylene fiber? Cement Concr Compos 95:228–236
Zhu JF, Hui J, Luo HJ, Zhang B, Wei XH, Wang F, Li YF (2021) Effects of polycarboxylate superplasticizer on rheological properties and early hydration of natural hydraulic lime. Cement Concr Compos 122:104052
Acknowledgements
This study is partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant no. 51978159), National Key R&D Program of China (Grant no. 2015BAB07B06) and Scientific Research Foundation of Graduate School of Southeast University (Grant no. YBPY2162).
Funding
The authors have not disclosed any funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Xing Wan: Methodology, Investigation, Writing- Original draft preparation Jianwen Ding: Data curation, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition Ning Jiao: Investigation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing. Sai Zhang: Investigation. Jianhua Wang: Validation. Chen Guo: Writing- Reviewing and Editing
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wan, X., Ding, J., Jiao, N. et al. Preparing controlled low strength materials (CLSM) using excavated waste soils with polycarboxylate superplasticizer. Environ Earth Sci 82, 214 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-10884-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-023-10884-5