Abstract
Chinese cities have been able to maintain much higher levels of household food security than many other cities in the Global South, according to recent surveys. Yet, little is known about the governance of the food provisioning system that underpins its urban food security. Based on a combination of household survey data, unstructured interviews and analyses of government documents, regulations and laws, we reveal that both Nanjing’s food provisioning system and its governance employ a public-private hybrid model. The hybridity is reflected in the mixed ownership structure of food wholesale and retail markets, the companies that manage them, and the involvement of both public and private capital in these markets. This hybridity prevents market failure in food system operation and thus is the underlying mechanism that ensures physical accessibility to and affordability of food in the city; it also balances food affordability and the profitability of food markets. This paper identifies various food security policies and regulations implemented by the Nanjing municipal government, such as the “vegetable basket” policy, the “crawling peg” policy in urban planning, the financial supports for upgrading wet market facilities and reducing rental fees, and the regulations on the retailing of fresh produce in supermarkets. These policies ensure that there is relatively equitable and easy access to healthy food for Nanjing residents and that the establishment of new wet markets keeps up with urban population growth. These food policies in Nanjing provide important lessons for other cities in the world to foster urban food security.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
See more information at the Hungry Cities Partnership website: http://hungrycities.net/
The Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) project (Swindale and Bilinsky 2006a, b) conducted a series of studies exploring and testing measures of household food insecurity in a variety of geographical and cultural contexts and developed widely used indicators to measure aspects of food insecurity.
Following a city-initiated campaign to renovate and upgrade wet markets since 2007, most wet markets in Nanjing are located within permanent structures.
The difference in the prices for electricity between commercial and residential usage is about 0.25 CNY/kWh in 2018 (State Grid Jiangsu Electric Power Co. 2018), and the difference in the prices for water between commercial and residential usage is about 0.78 CNY/m3 in 2018 (Nanjing Tap Water General Company 2017; State Grid Jiangsu Electric Power Co. 2018).
In Nanjing, supermarkets and wet markets are commonly open 7 days per week and about 14 hours per day. Business hours are from around 6:00 to 20:00 for wet markets and 8:00 to 22:00 for supermarkets. The different business hours allow them to cater to households with different time constraints for grocery shopping.
References
Ang, Y. Y. (2016). How China escaped the poverty trap (Cornell studies in political economy). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Battersby, J. (2012). Urban food security and the urban food policy gap. In Strategies to Overcome Poverty and Inequality: Towards Carnegie 3 Conference, Cape Town (pp. 3–7).
Battersby, J., Haysom, G., Marshak, M., Kroll, F., & Tawodzera, G. (2015). Retail planning as a means to support food security: A role for urban planning. http://www.afsun.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Web-Battersby-et-al-Retail-Planning.pdf. Accessed July 23 2018.
Bilinsky, P., & Swindale, A. (2010). Months of adequate household food provisioning (MAHFP) for measurement of household food access: Indicator guide (v.4). Washington, D.C.: FHI 360/FANTA.
Blekking, J., Tuholske, C., & Evans, T. (2017). Adaptive governance and market heterogeneity: An institutional analysis of an urban food system in sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122191.
Boos, L. M. (2012). A farmers’ market in a Food Desert: Evaluating farmers’ market effects on food accessibility in Richmond, CA. California: University of California, Berkeley. Available at http://nature.berkeley.edu/classes/es196/projects/2012final/BoosL_2012.pdf. Accessed July 23 2018.
Bougoure, U., & Lee, B. (2009). Service quality in Hong Kong: Wet markets vs supermarkets. British Food Journal, 111(1), 70–79, https://doi.org/10.1108/00070700910924245.
Candel, J. J. L. (2014). Food security governance: A systematic literature review. Food Security, 6(4), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-014-0364-2.
Chen, Y., Zhong, X., & Zheng, C. (2010). Government shoud not just talk but no action about reducing wet markets' stall rent. Modern Express. http://dz.xdkb.net/page/1/2010-11/25/F6/20101125F6_pdf.pdf. Accessed July 23 2018.
Chen, D., Zhuang, J., He, G., & Liu, X. (2016). Operating with integrity to ensure food quality and safety http://xh.jsgrain.gov.cn/default.php?mod=article&do=detail&tid=1092610. Accessed July 23 2018.
Coates, J., Swindale, A., & Bilinsky, P. (2007). Household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) for measurement of household food access: Indicator guide (v. 3). Washington, D.C.: FHI 360/FANTA.
Connell, D. J. (2009). National Farmers’ Market Impact Study 2009 Report. https://www.unbc.ca/sites/default/files/sections/david-connell/farmers-markets/nationalfarmersmarketimpactstudy2009.pdf. Accessed July 23 2018.
Corte, V. F. D., Oliveira, S. V. D., & Dewes, H. (2015). Market concentration and food security in developing economies: Supermarket power and food prices in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 9(11), 1–7.
Crush, J., & Frayne, B. (2011). Supermarket expansion and the informal food economy in southern African cities: Implications for urban food security. Journal of Southern African Studies, 37(4), 781–807.
FAO (2016). An introduction to the basic concepts of food security. Working Papers. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/al936e/al936e00.pdf. Accessed July 23 2018.
Fava, N., Guardia, M., & Oyón, J. L. (2016). Barcelona food retailing and public markets, 1876–1936. Urban history, 43(3), 454–475.
Freedman, D. A., Flocke, S., Shon, E. J., Matlack, K., Trapl, E., Ohri-Vachaspati, P., Osborne, A., & Borawski, E. (2017). Farmers' market use patterns among supplemental nutrition assistance program recipients with high access to Farmers' Markets. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 49(5), 397–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2017.01.007.
Goldman, A., Krider, R., & Ramaswami, S. (1999). The persistent competitive advantage of traditional food retailers in Asia: Wet markets’ continued dominance in Hong Kong. Journal of Macromarketing, 19(2), 126–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276146799192004.
Hamm, W. H., Frison, E., & Tirado von der Pahlen, M. C. (2018). Recognizing and integrating vital missing links in eco-Agri-food systems. In TEEB for Agriculture & Food: Scientific and economic foundations (pp. 111–159). Geneva: UN Environment.
Hang, Y. (2000). Development and management of wet markets in Nanjing City. Journal of Jiangsu Institute of Commerce, 16(3), 76–78, https://doi.org/10.16335/j.cnki.issn1672-2604.2000.03.022.
Ho, S.-C. (2005). Evolution versus tradition in marketing systems: The Hong Kong food-retailing experience. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 24(1), 90–99.
Huang, J., & Rozelle, S. (2006). The emergence of agricultural commodity markets in China. China Economic Review, 17(3), 266–280.
Huang, C., Tsai, K. H., & Chen, Y. C. (2015). How do wet markets still survive in Taiwan? British Food Journal, 117(1), 234–256.
Hulbrock, E., Otten, J. J., Quinn, E., Johnson, D. B., & Lerman, S. (2017). Exploring the use of Seattle's Farmers' market incentive program ("fresh bucks") by household food security levels. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 12(3), 362–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/19320248.2016.1255696.
Humphrey, J. (2007). The supermarket revolution in developing countries: Tidal wave or tough competitive struggle? Journal of Economic Geography, 7(4), 433–450. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbm008.
Islam, M. R. (2016). Hunger reduction in China: An analysis of contextual factors. Asian Social Work and Policy Review, 10(3), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/aswp.12098.
Jiangsu Provincial Government (2011). Regulation on the price in urban wet markets. http://www.js.gov.cn/art/2011/4/29/art_46800_2680654.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Kurland, N. B., & Aleci, L. S. (2015). From civic institution to community place: The meaning of the public market in modern America. Agriculture and Human Values, 32(3), 505–521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-014-9579-2.
Lowery, B., Sloane, D., Payán, D., Illum, J., & Lewis, L. (2016). Do Farmers' Markets increase access to healthy foods for all communities? Comparing markets in 24 neighborhoods in Los Angeles. Journal of the American Planning Association, 82(3), 252–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2016.1181000.
Ma, X., Huang, Y., & Sun, M. (2015). Study on key issues in last mile transportation of fresh farm produce based on agricultural product marketplace. Logistics Technology, 34(10), 18–20.
Marsilio, M., Cappellaro, G., & Cuccurullo, C. (2011). The intellectual structure of research into PPPs A bibliometric analysis. Public Management Review, 13(6), 763–782. https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2010.539112.
Martinez, M. G., Fearne, A., Caswell, J. A., & Henson, S. (2007). Co-regulation as a possible model for food safety governance: Opportunities for public-private partnerships. Food Policy, 32(3), 299–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2006.07.005.
McCracken, V., Sage, J., & Sage, R. (2012). Do farmers’ markets ameliorate food deserts. Focus, 29(1), 21–26.
Mele, C., Ng, M., & Chim, M. B. (2015). Urban markets as a 'corrective' to advanced urbanism: The social space of wet markets in contemporary Singapore. Urban Studies, 52(1), 103–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098014524613.
MHURD (Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of China). (2016). Code of urban residential areas Planning & Design (GB 50180–93). Beijing: Standards Press of China.
MOA (Ministry of Agriculture) (2017). Notice on the evaluation approach of the implementation of “vegetable basket” policy. http://www.moa.gov.cn/nybgb/2017/dsanq/201712/P020171231456518104852.pdf. Accessed July 23 2018.
MOC (Ministry of Commerce), MOF (Ministry of Finance), & STA (State Taxation Administration) (2005). Notice of Pilot Program of Produce Chain-store Operations. http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/article/b/d/200504/20050400076494.shtml. Accessed July 23 2018.
Morales, A. (2009). Public markets as community development tools. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 28(4), 426–440. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456x08329471.
Morales, A. (2011). Marketplaces: Prospects for social, economic, and political development. Journal of Planning Literature, 26(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412210388040.
Morales, A., & Kettles, G. (2010). Healthy food outside: farmers' markets, taco trucks, and sidewalk fruit vendors. Journal of Contemporary Health Law & Policy, 26(1), 20–48.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2003). Regulations on wet markets planning and construction. http://www.njghj.gov.cn/NGWeb/Page/Detail.aspx?InfoGuid=70359320-b543-43c2-8c29-7cc990dd635e. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2007). The Plan for Upgrading Wet markets. http://www.nanjing.gov.cn/xxgk/szf/200805/t20080528_1182053.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2008). The plan of vegetable basket project for 2008-2012. http://www.nanjing.gov.cn/xxgk/szf/200902/t20090218_1176613.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2010). Notice on stabilizing commodity price and securing the basic living standards of Nanjing residents. http://www.nanjing.gov.cn/gk/zfgb_1/1012/101204/201801/t20180109_5229854.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2011). Opinions for enhancing the construction of food distribution system and ensuring the stable food supply in the market. http://www.nanjing.gov.cn/zdgk/201202/t20120229_1055724.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2012). Implementation plan of improving "last mile" delivery-logistics of produce. http://www.nanjing.gov.cn/xxgk/szf/201208/t20120803_1183307.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2013). Suggestion on Upgrading Wet Markets in Nanjing City. http://www.nanjing.gov.cn/xxgk/szf/201302/t20130206_1183456.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2016). Regulation on the administration of commercial outlets planning and construction inNanjing City. http://www.nanjing.gov.cn/xxgk/szf/201609/t20160908_4145568.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2017a). Circular on Appropriation of Fund to Subsidize Upgrading Wet Markets in Nanjing City. http://swj.nanjing.gov.cn/njsswj/201803/t20180330_5353718.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2017b). Circular on the Plan for Upgrading Wet Markets in Nanjing City. http://www.nanjing.gov.cn/xxgk/szf/201710/t20171009_5047113.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Municipal Government (2018). Administration of the Special Fund for Upgrading Wet Markets in Nanjing City. http://www.njcz.gov.cn/36557/czglzd/201802/t20180226_5318509.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Nanjing Tap Water General Company (2017). Prices for water usage. http://www.jlwater.com/portal.do?method=news&subjectchildid=6&newsid=545. Accessed January 2019.
National Research Council (US). (2009). Ameliorating Food Desert Conditions. In The Public Health Effects of Food Deserts: Workshop Summary. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US).
Pensado-Leglise, M., & Smolski, A. (2017). An eco-egalitarian solution to the capitalist consumer paradox: Integrating short food chains and public market systems. Agriculture, 7(9), 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture7090076.
Peyton, S., Moseley, W., & Battersby, J. (2015). Implications of supermarket expansion on urban food security in Cape Town, South Africa. African Geographical Review, 34(1), 36–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/19376812.2014.1003307.
Pothukuchi, K., & Kaufman, J. L. (2000). The food system - A stranger to the planning field. Journal of the American Planning Association, 66(2), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360008976093.
Poulton, C., & Macartney, J. (2012). Can public-private partnerships leverage private Investment in Agricultural Value Chains in Africa? A preliminary review. World Development, 40(1), 96–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.05.017.
Project for Public Spaces (2003). Public markets as a vehicle for social integration and upward mobility—Phase I. Report: An Overview of Existing Programs and Assessment of Opportunities. Project for Public Spaces New York.
Reardon, T., & Timmer, C. P. (2012). The economics of the food system revolution. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 4(1), 225–264. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.resource.050708.144147.
Reardon, T., Timmer, C. P., & Minten, B. (2012). Supermarket revolution in Asia and emerging development strategies to include small farmers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(31), 12332–12337. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1003160108.
Rocha, C. (2007). Food insecurity as market failure: A contribution from economics. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 1(4), 5–22.
Rocha, C., & Lessa, I. (2009). Urban governance for food security: The alternative food system in Belo Horizonte, Brazil AU - Rocha, Cecilia. International Planning Studies, 14(4), 389–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563471003642787.
Rouviere, E., & Royer, A. (2017). Public private partnerships in food industries: A road to success? Food Policy, 69, 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.04.003.
Rudkin, S. (2015). Supermarket interventions and diet in areas of limited retail access: Policy suggestions from the Seacroft intervention study. MPRA paper no 62434. https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/62434/1/MPRA_paper_62434.pdf. Accessed July 23 2018.
Ruelas, V., Iverson, E., Kiekel, P., & Peters, A. (2012). The role of Farmers' Markets in two low income, urban communities. Journal of Community Health, 37(3), 554–562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-011-9479-y.
Sadler, R. C., Gilliland, J. A., & Arku, G. (2013). A food retail-based intervention on food security and consumption. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 10(8), 3325–3346. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10083325.
Salcido, G., Leglise, M. D. R. P., & Smolski, A. (2015). Food distribution's socio-economic relationships and public policy: Mexico City's municipal public markets. Development in Practice, 25(3), 293–305.
SCJPPC (Standing Committee of Jiangsu Provincial People's Congress) (1998). Legislative review on "Nanjing Municipal Regulation on Wetmarket Administration". http://www.jsrd.gov.cn/zyfb/hygb/19987/200901/t20090107_29860.shtml. Accessed July 23 2018.
SCNMPC (Standing Committee of Nanjing Municipal People's Congress) (2004). Decision on Amending "Nanjing Municipal Regulation on Wetmarket Administration". http://www.njghj.gov.cn/NGWEB/Page/Detail.aspx?InfoGuid=2170f428-7b83-4f46-afcd-4a15a64cd37c. Accessed July 23 2018.
SCNMPC (Standing Committee of Nanjing Municipal People's Congress) (2010). Regulations on Marketplace Management. http://home.saic.gov.cn/fgs/zcfg/201801/t20180125_272050.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Scott, S., Si, Z. Z., Schumilas, T., & Chen, A. J. (2014). Contradictions in state- and civil society-driven developments in China's ecological agriculture sector. Food Policy, 45, 158–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.08.002.
Sharif, M. S. M., Nor, N. M., Zahari, M. S. M., & Muhammad, R. (2015). Following mothers to the wet market: The significant benefits gain by young generations. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 170, 197–205.
Si, Z., & Zhong, T. (2018). The state of household food security in Nanjing, China. In J. Crush & L. Riley (Eds.), Hungry Cities Report (pp. 1–53).
Si, Z., Scott, S., & McCordic, C. (2018). Wet markets, supermarkets and alternative food sources: Consumers’ food access in Nanjing, China. Canadian Journal of Development Studies / Revue canadienne d'études du développement, 40, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/02255189.2018.1442322.
Slade, C., Baldwin, C., & Budge, T. (2016). Urban planning roles in responding to food security needs. Journal of Agriculture Food Systems and Community Development, 7(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.5304/jafscd.2016.071.005.
State Council (1995). Notice on deepening the reform of procurement and distribution system of grains, cotton and synthetic fertilizer. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2018-04/13/content_5281683.htm. Accessed July 23 2018.
State Grid Jiangsu Electric Power Co., L. (2018). Prices for electricity usage. http://www.js.sgcc.com.cn/html/main/col2747/2018-6/19/20180619081445039819903_1.html. Accessed January 15 2019.
Swindale, A., & Bilinsky, P. (2006a). Development of a universally applicable household food insecurity measurement tool: Process, current status, and outstanding issues. Journal of Nutrition, 136(5), 1449–1452.
Swindale, A., & Bilinsky, P. (2006b). Household dietary diversity score (HDDS) for measurement of household food access: Indicator guide (v.2). Washington, D.C.: FHI 360/FANTA.
Tuan, F. C., & Ke, B. (1999). A review of China's agricultural policy: Past and present developments. Paper presented at the Agriculture in China and OECD Countries: Past Policies and Future Challenges, https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZHWAgAAQBAJ. Accessed July 23 2018.
Veeck, A., & Veeck, G. (2000). Consumer segmentation and changing food purchase patterns in Nanjing, PRC. World Development, 28(3), 457–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00135-7.
Walker, R. E., Keane, C. R., & Burke, J. G. (2010). Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature. Health & Place, 16(5), 876–884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013.
Wang, Q. (2010). Public-ownership marketplace being operated by private sectors embarrasses government's require of reduceing stall rents by half. Jiangnan Times. http://news.163.com/10/1208/00/6NBDEF9400014AED.html. Accessed July 23 2018.
Weatherspoon, D. D., & Reardon, T. (2003). The rise of supermarkets in Africa: Implications for Agrifood systems and the rural poor. Development Policy Review, 21(3), 333–355. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7679.00214.
XHBYNET (Xinhua Baoye Wang) (2010). Reducing wet markets' stall rent by half. http://js.xhby.net/system/2010/12/02/010858670.shtml. Accessed July 23 2018.
Xia, T., & Chen, Y. (2010). Reducing wet market stall rent by half has been questioned. Modern Express. http://www.chinanews.com/cj/2010/12-03/2698093.shtml. Accessed July 23 2018.
Yu, J. (2014). Fresh produce market is vital for sales chanel growth. https://www.kantarworldpanel.com/dwl.php?sn=news_downloads&id=506. Accessed July 25 2018.
Zhang, Q. F., & Pan, Z. (2013). The transformation of urban vegetable retail in China: Wet markets, supermarkets and informal markets in Shanghai. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 43(3), 497–518.
Zhong, T., Si, Z., Crush, J., Xu, Z., Huang, X., Scott, S., Tang, S., & Zhang, X. (2018). The impact of proximity to wet markets and supermarkets on household dietary diversity in Nanjing City, China. Sustainability, 10(5), 1465.
Zou, W. (2014). Frequent dispute against increasing wet market's stall rent. Nanjing Daily. http://jsnews2.jschina.com.cn/system/2014/02/18/020286963.shtml. Accessed July 23 2018.
Zou, W., & Zhang, J. (2011). The way to make wet markets public-benefit. Nanjing Daily. http://finance.china.com.cn/news/dfjj/20111229/454640.shtml. Accessed July 23 2018.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the Hungry Cities Partnership project supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the International Development Research Centre through the International Partnerships for Sustainable Societies (IPaSS) Program. We are extremely grateful for the assistance and suggestions of Dr. Shuangshuang Tang, Miss Menglu Yan and Dr. Xiang Zhang.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Zhong, T., Si, Z., Crush, J. et al. Achieving urban food security through a hybrid public-private food provisioning system: the case of Nanjing, China. Food Sec. 11, 1071–1086 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00961-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00961-8