Abstract
Geodiversity assessment provides a reliable basis for land planning and management at national and regional levels. The present study was conducted with the aim of evaluating and analyzing the geodiversity in Iran and comparing the two methods of kriging and hotspot analysis in creating a geodiversity map. To this end, five main factors, including, geology, geomorphology, soil, hydrography, and climate were used to generate a geodiversity map. The number of features was counted for each index of each grid. The values of each index and the sum of these values were analyzed using Kriging and Getis-Ord Gi* statistics methods. According to the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic, 16.2% of Iran’s area is located in hotspot clusters with a confidence level of more than 95%. The Zagros folded belt, Alborz mountains, Sanandaj-Sirjan zone, Zagros thrust belt, Uromieh-Dokhtar zone, mountains north of Kerman (Central of Iran), and Maku-Baneh zone were identified as the most important geodiversity hotspots in Iran. The results showed that the Getis-Ord Gi* method with a higher coefficient of determination and classification of clusters based on Z-score and P-value is more accurate than the kriging method for classifying hot spots of geodiversity.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aghanabati A (2004) Geology of Iran, geological survey and mineral exploration of Iran, Tehran (in Persian)
Ahmadi M, Mokhtari D, Khodadadi M, Shahabi H (2021) Geodiversity evaluation and geoconservation using grid analysis: case study, north of Ilam Province. Appl Geomatics 13(4):537–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12518-021-00377-0
Ahmadi M, Derafshi K, Mokhtari D, Khodadadi M, Najafi E (2022) Geodiversity assessments and geoconservation in the northwest of Zagros Mountain Range, Iran: grid and fuzzy method analysis. Geoheritage 14(4):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-022-00769-7
Alaee Taleghani M (2005) Geomorphology of Iran. Ghoomes, Tehran, p 360 (in Persian)
Alahuhta J, Ala-Hulkko T, Tukiainen H, Purola L, Akujärvi A, Lampinen R, Hjort J (2018) The role of geodiversity in providing ecosystem services at broad scales. Ecol Ind 91:47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.03.068
Aldstadt J (2009) Spatial clustering. In: Fischer MM, Getis A (eds) Handbook of applied spatial analysis: Software tools, methods and applications, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 279–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03647-7_15
Araujo AM, Pereira DÍ (2018) A new methodological contribution for the geodiversity assessment: applicability to Ceará State (Brazil). Geoheritage 10(4):591–605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-017-0250-3
Beck HE, Zimmermann NE, McVicar TR, Vergopolan N, Berg A, Wood EF (2018) Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution. Sci Data 5(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2018.214
Benito-Calvo A, Pérez-González A, Magri O, Meza P (2009) Assessing regional geodiversity: the Iberian Peninsula. Earth Surf Proc Land 34(10):1433–1445
Betard F, Peulvast JP (2019) Geodiversity hotspots: concept, method and cartographic application for geoconservation purposes at a regional scale. Environ Manage 63(6):822–834. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-019-01168-5
Çetiner ZS, Ertekin C, Yiğitbaş E (2018) Evaluating scientific value of geodiversity for natural protected sites: the Biga Peninsula. Northwest Turkey Geoheritage 10(1):49–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-017-0218-3
Cifelli F, Mattei M, Rashid H, Ghalamghash J (2013) Right-lateral transpressional tectonics along the boundary between Lut and Tabas blocks (Central Iran). Geophys J Int 193(3):1153–1165. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggt070
Crisp JR, Ellison JC, Fischer A (2021) Current trends and future directions in quantitative geodiversity assessment. Prog Phys Geogr: Earth Environ 45(4):514–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133320967219
Darvishzadeh A (1991) Geology of Iran. Danesh Emrouz (Amir Kabir), Tehran, p 902 (In Persian)
De Reu J, Bourgeois J, Bats M, Zwertvaegher A, Gelorini V, De Smedt P et al (2013) Application of the topographic position index to heterogeneous landscapes. Geomorphology 186:39–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.12.015
Eftekhar Nejad J (1980) Tectonic classification of Iran in relation to depositional basins. J Iran Pet Soc 82:19–28
Erikstad L (2013) Geoheritage and geodiversity management–the questions for tomorrow. Proc Geol Assoc 124(4):713–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2012.07.003
Finzi Y, Avni S, Maroz A, Avriel-Avni N, Ashckenazi-Polivoda S, Ryvkin I (2019) Extraordinary geodiversity and geoheritage value of erosional craters of the Negev Craterland. Geoheritage 11(3):875–896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-018-0335-7
Forte JP, Brilha J, Pereira DI, Nolasco M (2018) Kernel density applied to the quantitative assessment of geodiversity. Geoheritage 10(2):205–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-018-0282-3
Gallant JC (2000) Primary topographic attributes. In: Wilson JP, Gallant JC (eds) Terrain analysis: principles and applications. Wiley & Sons, pp 51–86
Getis A (2008) A history of the concept of spatial autocorrelation: a geographer’s perspective. Geogr Anal 40(3):297–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.2008.00727.x
Getis A, Ord JK (1992) The analysis of spatial association by use of distance statistics. Geogr Anal 24:3. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1992.tb00261.x
Getis A (2009) Spatial autocorrelation. In: Fischer MM, Getis A (eds) Handbook of applied spatial analysis: Software tools, methods and applications. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03647-7_14
Ghaemi H, Zarin A, Khoshakhlagh F (2013) Arid land climatology. Iran University Press, Tehran (in Persian)
Ghahroudi Tali M, Abdoli E, Nezammahalleh MA (2013) Geomorphological and sedimentological evidence of alpine glaciers in the Zagros Mountains, Dinevar. Iran J Tethys 1:85–95
GhahroudiTali M, Alinoori K, Farjadinia S (2022) Application of geodiversity in environmental management case study of Karaj Dam upstream basin. Quant Geomorphol Res 10(4):1–17. https://doi.org/10.22034/GMPJ.2021.291188.1283
Ghasemi A, Talbot CJ (2006) A new tectonic scenario for the Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone (Iran). J Asian Earth Sci 26(6):683–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2005.01.003
Ghorbani M (2013) The economic geology of Iran. Springer, Dordrecht, Mineral deposits and natural resources. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5625-0
Golimokhtari L, Neghaban S, Shafiei N (2019) Geodetical comparison analysis (geological diversity) in Northwest basins of Fars Province using FRAGTATSE software. Quant Geomorphol Res 7(3):151–163
Gonçalves J, Mansur K, Santos D, Henriques R, Pereira P (2020) A discussion on the quantification and classification of geodiversity indices based on GIS methodological tests. Geoheritage 12(2):1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-020-00458-3
Gordon JE, Barron HF (2013) The role of geodiversity in delivering ecosystem services and benefits in Scotland. Scott J Geol 49(1):41–58. https://doi.org/10.1144/sjg2011-465
Gray M (2013) Geodiversity: Valuing and conserving abiotic nature, 2nd edn. Wiley Blackwell, Chichester
Guisan A, Weiss SB, Weiss AD (1999) GLM versus CCA spatial modeling of plant species distribution. Plant Ecol 143(1):107–122. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009841519580
Haining RP (2001) Spatial autocorrelation. Neil J, Smelser P, Baltes B. Pergamon, International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences, pp 14763–14768
Hjort J, Luoto M (2012) Can geodiversity be predicted from space? Geomorphology 153:74–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.02.010
Hjort J, Heikkinen RK, Luoto M (2012) Inclusion of explicit measures of geodiversity improve biodiversity models in a boreal landscape. Biodivers Conserv 21(13):3487–3506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-012-0376-1
Jankowski P, Najwer A, Zwoliński Z, Niesterowicz J (2020) Geodiversity assessment with crowdsourced data and spatial multicriteria analysis. ISPRS Int J Geo Inf 9(12):716. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9120716
Karimi vardnjani H (2015) Karst hydrology and geomorphology. Eram pub, Shiraz, p 536 (in Persian)
Kim SM, Choi Y (2017) Assessing statistically significant heavy-metal concentrations in abandoned mine areas via hot spot analysis of portable XRF data. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14(6):654. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14060654
Kondo K (2016) Hot and cold spot analysis using Stata. Stand Genomic Sci 16(3):613–631
Krinsley DB (1970) A geomorphological and paleoclimatological study of the playas of Iran. Part II. In: US geological survey. Government Printing Office, Washington
Lawler JJ, Ackerly DD, Albano CM, Anderson MG, Dobrowski SZ, Gill JL et al (2015) The theory behind, and the challenges of, conserving nature’s stage in a time of rapid change. Conserv Biol 29(3):618–629. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12505
Legendre P (1993) Spatial autocorrelation: trouble or new paradigm? Ecology 74(6):1659–1673. https://doi.org/10.2307/1939924
Maghsoudi M, Moghimi E, Yamani M, Rezaei N, Moradi A (2019a) Geomorphodiversity investigation of Damavand volcano and its surroundings based on the GmI Index. Quant Geomorphol Res 8(1):52–69
Maghsoudi M, Moradi A, Moradipour F, Nezammahalleh MA (2019b) Geotourism development in world heritage of the Lut Desert. Geoheritage 11(2):501–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-018-0303-2
Maghsoudi M (2021) Geodiversity of Iran. In: Desert landscapes and landforms of Iran. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58912-7
Manosso FC, Zwoliński Z, Najwer A, Basso BT, Santos DS, Pagliarini MV (2021) Spatial pattern of geodiversity assessment in the Marrecas River drainage basin, Paraná, Brazil. Ecol Indic 126:107703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107703
Masoodian SA, Kaviani MR (2012) Climatology of Iran. University of Isfahan press, Isfahan (in Persian)
Matthews TJ (2014) Integrating geodiversity and biodiversity conservation: theoretical foundations and conservation recommendations in a European Union context. Geoheritage 6:57–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-013-0092-6
Melelli L (2014) Geodiversity: a new quantitative index for natural protected areas enhancement. Geojournal Tour Geosites 13(1):27–37
Migoń P (2021) Granite landscapes, geodiversity and geoheritage-global context. Heritage 4(1):198–219. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4010012
Mitchell A (2005) The ESRI guide to GIS analysis, vol 2, Redlands, p 238
Mokarram M, Roshan G, Negahban S (2015) Landform classification using topography position index (case study: salt dome of Korsia-Darab plain, Iran). Model Earth Syst Environ 1(4):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-015-0055-9
Mokhtari D, RezayiMoghadam MH, Esfandiari M (2022) Geomorphodiversity index: quantifying the diversity of landforms and physical landscape of the Mishu Mountains, northwest of Iran. Quant Geomorphol Res 11(3):205–224. https://doi.org/10.22034/GMPJ.2022.333913.1338
Moradi A, Maghsoudi M, Moghimi E, Yamani M, Rezaei N (2021) A comprehensive assessment of geomorphodiversity and geomorphological heritage for Damavand Volcano management. Iran Geoheritage 13(2):1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-021-00551-1
Nabavi MH (1976) An introduction to geology of Iran. Geological Survey of Iran, Tehran, p 109 (in Persian)
Najwer A, Jankowski P, Niesterowicz J, Zwoliński Z (2022) Geodiversity assessment with global and local spatial multicriteria analysis. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 107:102665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2021.102665
Nasiri A, Shafiei N, Zandi R (2022) Evaluation of geodiversity across Noorabad Basin (Fars Province, Iran). Geoheritage 14(4):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-022-00754-0
Nezafati N (2006) Au-Sn-W-Cu-mineralization in the Astaneh-Sarband Area, West Central Iran including a comparison of the ores with ancient bronze artifacts from Western Asia. PhD thesis, University of Freiberg
Özşahin E (2017) Geodiversity assessment in the Ganos (Isıklar) Mount (NW Turkey). Environ Earth Sci 76(7):271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6591-z
Pál M, Albert G (2021) Refinement proposals for geodiversity assessment—a case study in the Bakony-Balaton UNESCO Global Geopark. Hungary ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf 10(8):566. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10080566
Parks KE, Mulligan M (2010) On the relationship between a resource based measure of geodiversity and broad scale biodiversity patterns. Biodivers Conserv 19(9):2751–2766. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9876-z
Pellitero R, Manosso FC, Serrano E (2015) Mid-and large-scale geodiversity calculation in fuentes carrionas (NW Spain) and serra do cadeado (Paraná, Brazil): methodology and application for land management. Geogr Ann Ser B 97(2):219–235. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoa.12057
Pereira DI, Pereira P, Brilha J, Santos L (2013) Geodiversity assessment of Paraná State (Brazil): an innovative approach. Environ Manage 52(3):541–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-013-0100-2
Prasannakumar V, Vijith H, Charutha R, Geetha N (2011) Spatio-temporal clustering of road accidents: GIS based analysis and assessment. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 21:317–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.07.020
Quesada-Román A, Pérez-Umaña D (2020) State of the art of geodiversity, geoconservation, and geotourism in Costa Rica. Geosciences 10(6):211. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10060211
Ramezani J, Tucker RD (2003) The Saghand region, central Iran: U-Pb geochronology, petrogenesis and implications for Gondwana tectonics. Am J Sci 303(7):622–665
Riley SJ, DeGloria SD, Elliot R (1999) Index that quantifies topographic heterogeneity. Int J Sci 5(1–4):23–27
Rong T, Xu S, Lu Y, Tong Y, Yang Z (2022) Quantitative assessment of spatial pattern of geodiversity in the Tibetan plateau. Sustainability 15(1):299. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010299
Roozitalab MH, Toomanian N, Ghasemi Dehkordi VR, Khormali F (2018) Major soils, properties, and classification. In: Roozitalab MH, Siadat H, Farshad A (eds) The soils of Iran. Springer, Cham, pp 93–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69048-3
Rossi F, Becker G (2019) Creating forest management units with hot spot analysis (Getis-Ord Gi*) over a forest affected by mixed-severity fires. Aust for 82(4):166–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.2019.1678714
Ruban DA (2010) Quantification of geodiversity and its loss. Proc Geol Assoc 121(3):326–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2010.07.002
Ruban DA (2017) Geodiversity as a precious national resource: a note on the role of geoparks. Resour Policy 53:103–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2017.06.007
Ruban DA, Yashalova NN (2018) Geodiversity meanings in global geoparks: an empirical study. Environ Earth Sci 77(22):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7962-9
SalehipourMilani A, Sadough SH, Rafiei R (2021) Geodiversity assessment in catchments of Salt and Hoz-e-Soltan Lakes. Quantit Geomorphol Res 10(2):84–105. https://doi.org/10.22034/GMPJ.2021.289193.1277
Santos DS, Mansur KL, Gonçalves JB, Junior ERA, Manosso FC (2017) Quantitative assessment of geodiversity and urban growth impacts in Armação dos Búzios, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Appl Geogr 85:184–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.03.009
Santos DS, Mansur KL, de Arruda Jr ER, Dantas ME, Shinzato E (2019) Geodiversity mapping and relationship with vegetation: A regional-scale application in SE Brazil. Geoheritage 11:399–415
Santucci VL (2005) Historical perspectives on biodiversity and geodiversity. In The George Wright forum, vol 22, no 3. George Wright Society, pp 29–34
Sanz J, Zamalloa T, Maguregi G, Fernandez L, Echevarria I (2020) Educational potential assessment of geodiversity sites: a proposal and a case study in the Basque Country (Spain). Geoheritage 12(1):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-020-00432-z
Serrano E, Ruiz Flano P (2007) Geodiversity: concept, assessment and territorial application. The case of Tiermes-Caraciena (Soria). Boletín De La Asoc De Geógrafos Esp 45:389–393
Shafaii Moghadam H, Stern RJ (2014) Ophiolites of Iran: keys to understanding the tectonic evolution of SW Asia: (I) Paleozoic ophiolites. J Asian Earth Sci 91:19–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2014.04.008
Shafaii Moghadam H, Stern RJ (2015) Ophiolites of Iran: keys to understanding the tectonic evolution of SW Asia: (II) Mesozoic ophiolites. J Asian Earth Sci 100:31–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2014.12.016
Shayanyeganeh A, ZanganeAsadi M, Amir-Ahmadi A (2020) The quantitative assessment of geodiversity of proposed Geopark of West Khorasan Razavi to protect its geoheritage. Geogr Plan Space 10(36):77–90
Silva MLN, Do Nascimento MAL, Mansur KL (2019) Quantitative assessments of geodiversity in the area of the Seridó Geopark Project, Northeast Brazil: grid and centroid analysis. Geoheritage 11(3):1177–1186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-019-00368-z
Sistani Bdouei M, Fotohi S, Negaresh H, Ramesht MH, Roostaei M (2021) Geodiversity and geomorphodiversity differences in the coastal of sea of Oman and Makran zone from Cape Jask to Gwadar Bay. Geogr Dev 19(63):39–66. https://doi.org/10.22111/J10.22111.2021.6169
Solarska A, Hose TA, Vasiljević DA, Mroczek P, Jary Z, Marković SB, Widawski K (2013) Geodiversity of the loess regions in Poland: inventory, geoconservation issues, and geotourism potential. Quatern Int 296:68–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2057
Stepišnik U, Trenchovska A (2018) A new quantitative model for comprehensive geodiversity evaluation: the Škocjan Caves Regional Park. Slovenia Geoheritage 10(1):39–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-017-0216-5
Strahler AN (1957) Quantitative analysis of watershed geomorphology. EOS Trans Am Geophys Union 38(6):913–920
Tukiainen H, Alahuhta J, Field R, Ala-Hulkko T, Lampinen R, Hjort J (2017) Spatial relationship between biodiversity and geodiversity across a gradient of land-use intensity in high-latitude landscapes. Lands Ecol 32(5):1049–1063
Van Ree CCDF, Van Beukering PJH (2016) Geosystem services: a concept in support of sustainable development of the subsurface. Ecosyst Serv 20:30–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2016.06.004
Vizuete-Jaramillo E, Meza-Figueroa D, Reyes-Castro PA, Robles-Morua A (2022) Using a sensitivity analysis and spatial clustering to determine vulnerability to potentially toxic elements in a semiarid city in northwest Mexico. Sustainability 14(17):10461. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710461
Walker R, Jackson J (2004) Active tectonics and late Cenozoic strain distribution in central and eastern Iran. Tectonics 23:5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2003TC001529
Wang L, Tian M, Wang L (2015) Geodiversity, geoconservation and geotourism in Hong Kong global geopark of China. Proc Geol Assoc 126(3):426–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pgeola.2015.02.006
Weiss A (2001) Topographic position and landforms analysis. In Poster presentation, ESRI user conference, San Diego, CA (200)
Yamani M (2016) Geomorphological maps, techniques and methods. University of Tehran press, Tehran (in Persian)
Zamani B, Masson F (2014) Recent tectonics of East (Iranian) Azerbaijan from stress state reconstructions. Tectonophysics 611:61–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.10.015
Zanchi A, Berra F, Mattei M, Ghassemi MR, Sabouri J (2006) Inversion tectonics in central Alborz. Iran J Struct Geol 28(11):2023–2037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2006.06.020
Zecha S, Regelous A (2018) Promoting geodiversity education by using earthcaching in National Geoparks. Geoheritage 10(4):637–643. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-018-0280-5
Zomorodian MJ (2004) Geomorphology of Iran, structural processes and endogen dynamic, 2nd edn. Ferdowsi University Press, p 262 (in Persian)
Zwoliński Z, Najwer A, Giardino M (2018) Methods for assessing geodiversity. In: Reynard E, Brilha J (eds) Geoheritage - assessment, protection, and management. Elsevier, pp 27–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809531-7.00002-2
Zwoliński Z, Stachowiak J (2012) Geodiversity map of the Tatra National Park for geotourism. Quaest Geographicae 31(1):99–107. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10117-012-0012-x
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
Hereby, the author consciously assures that for the manuscript the following are fulfilled: (1) This material is the author’s own original work, which has not been previously published elsewhere. (2) The paper is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. (3) The paper reflects the author’s own research and analysis in a truthful and complete manner. (4) All the sources used are properly disclosed (correct citation). The study did not include human participants and/or animal. Therefore, ethical approval does not apply to this type of study and informed consent.
Conflict of Interest
The author declares no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Esmaili, R. Quantitative Evaluation and Spatial Clustering of Geodiversity in Iran. Geoheritage 16, 13 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-024-00914-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-024-00914-4