Abstract
In a large-scale top-down innovation operation in the Netherlands, workplace simulations have been implemented in vocational schools, where students are required to work independently and self-direct their learning. However, research has shown that the success of such large-scale top-down innovations depends on how well their execution in schools matches the theoretical plans and goals. Given that teachers play a crucial role in translating innovative concepts to educational practice, their perceptions of teaching in these environments may provide useful information about how to best match the goals of workplace simulation to its execution. In this interview study, we therefore focussed on teachers’ views of designing instructional material and providing pedagogical guidance in workplace simulations. Twenty teachers belonging to six teams participated. The results reveal that teachers face difficulties on both aspects and it became clear that the top-down innovations influenced their daily practice. Old routines and spontaneous and immediate reactions determined much of the teachers’ approaches to implementation, and it appeared that they were not yet sufficiently prepared to help students develop metacognitive skills. Furthermore, self-regulation and self-direction among students are not sufficiently promoted and supported in workplace simulations. Teachers often experienced a deep conflict between maintaining control and letting go. Our results point out that teachers need to be supported and guided during the implementation process of any top-down innovation, so that they learn how to adjust their teaching to the new requirements of workplace simulations. It seems important to ensure that teachers are also well skilled for reflecting on their own practices.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbot-Chapman, J., Hughes, P., & Williamson, J. (2001). Teachers’ perceptions of classroom competencies over a decade of change. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 29, 171–185. doi:10.1018/13598660120061345.
Agarwal, R., Epstein, S., Oppenheim, R., Oyler, C., & Sonu, D. (2010). From ideal to practice and back again: beginning teachers teaching for social justice. Journal of Teacher Education, 61, 237–247. doi:10.1177/0022487109354521.
Aleandri, G., & Refrigeri, L. (2013). Lifelong learning, training and education in globalized economic systems: analysis and perspectives. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Science, 93, 1242–1248. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.022.
Azevedo, R., Moos, D. C., Greene, J. A., Winters, F. I., & Cromley, J. G. (2008). Why is externally-facilitated regulated learning more effective than self-regulated learning with hypermedia? Educational Technology Research and Development, 56, 45–72. doi:10.1007/s11423-007-9067-0.
Baartman, L. K. J., & De Bruijn, E. (2011). Integrating knowledge, skills and attitudes: conceptualising learning processes towards vocational competence. Educational Research Review, 6, 125–134. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2011.03.001.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Beedie, F., Creaser, M., Hargreaves, J., & Ong, A. (2014). Readiness to meet demand for skills: a study of five growth industries. Research report. Australia: National Centre for Vocational Education Research.
Biemans, H., Nieuwenhuis, L., Poell, R., Mulder, M., & Wesselink, R. (2004). Competence-based VET in the Netherlands: background and pitfalls. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 56, 523–538. doi:10.1080/13636820400200268.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21, 5–31. doi:10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
De Bruijn, E. (2004). Changing pedagogic and didactic approaches in vocational education in the Netherlands. From institutional interests to ambitions of students. European Journal: Vocational Training, 31, 27–37.
De Bruijn, E. (2012). Teaching in innovative vocational education in the Netherlands. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 18, 637–653. doi:10.1080/13540602.2012.746499.
De Bruijn, E., & Leeman, Y. (2011). Authentic and self-directed learning in vocational education: challenges to vocational educators. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 694–702. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.11.007.
Doornekamp, B. G., Streumer, J. N., Van der Sanden, J. M. M., & Teurlings, C. C. J. (2002). Integration of practice and theory in prevocational secondary education. International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 10, 5–20.
Dutch Inspectorate of Education (2007). Competenties: Kun je dat leren? Een inspectieonderzoek naar de onderwijskundige kwaliteit van de verniewing in het mbo [Competencies: Can you learn it? An inspectorate research into the educational quality of the innovation in SVE]. Retrieved from http://www.onderwijsinspectie.nl.
Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H. (2005). The interview. From neutral stance to political involvement. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The sage handbook of qualitative research (pp. 695–727). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Fullan, M. G. (2000). The return of large scale reform. Journal of Educational Change, 1, 5–28. doi:10.1023/A:1010068703786.
Fullan, M. G. (2007). The new meaning of educational change. New York: Teachers College Press.
Gijbels, D., Raemdonck, I., & Verwecken, D. (2010). Influencing work-related learning: the role of job characteristics and self-directed learning orientation in part-time vocational education. Vocation and Learning, 3, 239–255. doi:10.1007/s12186-010-9041-6.
Hattie, J. A. (2009). Visible learning. A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses in education. New York: Routledge.
Hattie, J. A., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81–112. doi:10.3102/003465430298487.
Imants, J., Wubbels, T., & Vermunt, J. D. (2013). Teachers’ enactments of workplace conditions and their beliefs and attitudes toward reform. Vocations & Learning, 6, 323–346. doi:10.1007/s12186-013-9098-0.
Jossberger, H., Brand-Gruwel, S., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & van de Wiel, M. (2010). The challenge of self-directed and self-regulated learning in vocational education: a theoretical analysis and synthesis of requirements. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 62, 415–440. doi:10.1080/13636820.2010.523479.
Katz, I., & Assor, A. (2007). When choice motivates and when it does not. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 429–442. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9027-y.
Ketelaar, E., Beijaard, D., Boshuizen, H. P. A., & Den Brok, P. J. (2012). Teachers’ positioning towards an educational innovation in the light of ownership, sense-making and agency. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28, 273–282. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.10.004.
Kicken, W., Brand-Gruwel, S., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008). Scaffolding advice on task selection: a safe path toward self-directed learning in on-demand education. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 60, 223–239. doi:10.1080/13636820802305561.
Kicken, W., Brand-Gruwel, S., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Slot, W. (2009). Design and evaluation of a development portfolio: how to improve students’ self-directed learning skills. Instructional Science, 37, 453–473. doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9058-5.
King, N. (2004). Using templates in the thematic analysis of text. In C. Cassell & G. Symon (Eds.), Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational research (pp. 256–270). London: Sage.
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Chicago: Follett.
Könings, K. D., Brand-Gruwel, S., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2007). Teachers’ perspectives on innovations: implications for educational design. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 985–997. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2006.06.004.
Kyndt, E., Govaerts, N., Dochy, F., & Baert, H. (2011). The learning intention of low-qualified employees: a key for participation in lifelong learning and continuous training. Vocations and Learning, 4, 211–229. doi:10.1007/s12186-011-9058-5.
Lagerweij, N. A. J., & Lagerweij-Voogt, J. C. (2004). Anders kijken: de dynamiek van een eeuw onderwijsverandering [Different view: the dynamic of one century educational change]. Antwerp/Apeldoorn: Garant.
Le Fevre, D. M. (2014). Barriers to implementing pedagogical change: the role of teachers’ perceptions of risk. Teaching and Teacher Education, 38, 56–64. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2013.11.007.
Loyens, S. M. M., Magda, J., & Rikers, M. J. P. (2008). Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning. Educational Psychology Review, 20, 411–427. doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9082-7.
Marin, S. M. (2012). Change and innovation in the educational policies and strategies for human resources development. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47, 1662–1667. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.880.
Martin, A. J. (2006). The relationship between teachers’ perceptions of student motivation and engagement and teachers’ enjoyment of and confidence in teaching. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 34, 73–93. doi:10.1080/13598660500480100.
Maskit, D. (2011). Teachers’ attitudes toward pedagogical changes during various stages of professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 851–860. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.01.009.
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. (2004). Naar een nieuwe wet op het hoger onderwijs en onderzoek [Toward a new law in higher education and research]. DeltaHage: The Hague.
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. Eurydice. The educational system in the Netherlands 2005 (The Hague, 2005, May). Retrieved March 14, 2014, from http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten-en-publicaties/rapporten/2005/12/23/education-system-in-the-netherlands.html.
Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (2014). Onderwijs in cijfers: Stromen in het Nederlandse onderwijs [Education in numbers: Streams in Dutch education]. Retrieved April 30, 2015, from http://www.onderwijsincijfers.nl/kengetallen/sectoroverstijgend/nederlands-onderwijsstelsel/stromen-in-het-nederlandse-onderwijs
Nijhof, W. J., & van Esch, W. (2004). Unravelling policy, power, process and performance. Formative evaluation of the Dutch Adult and Vocational Education Act. Den Bosch: CINOP.
Paris, S. G., & Paris, A. H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 36, 89–101. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3602_4.
Pilling-Cormick, J., & Garrison, D. R. (2007). Self-directed and self-regulated learning: conceptual links. Canadian Journal of University Continuing Education, 33, 13–33.
Pintrich, P. R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 495–470. doi:10.1016/S0883-0355(99)00015-4.
Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Struyven, K., & De Meyst, M. (2010). Competence-based teacher education: Illusion or reality? An assessment of the implementation status in Flanders from teachers’ and students’ point of view. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 1495–1510. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.05.006.
Sturing, L., Biemans, H. J. A., Mulder, M., & De Bruijn, E. (2011). The nature of study programmes in vocational education: evaluation of the model for comprehensive competence-based vocational education in the Netherlands. Vocations and Learning, 4, 191–210. doi:10.1007/s12186-011-9059-4.
Tillema, H. H., & Kremer-Hayon, L. (2002). Practising what we preach – teacher educators’ dilemmas in promoting self-regulated learning: a cross case comparison. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 593–607. doi:10.1016/S0742-051X(02)00018-5.
Tynjälä, P. (2008). Perspectives into learning at the workplace. Educational Research Review, 3, 130–154. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2007.12.001.
Van Hout-Wolters, B. H. A. M., Simons, P. R. J., & Volet, S. E. (2000). Active learning: Self-directed learning and independent work. In P. R. J. Simons, J. van der Linden, & T. Duffy (Eds.), New learning (pp. 21–36). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kirschner, P. A. (2013). Ten steps to complex learning. A systematic approach to four-component instructional design (2nd ed.). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Vermunt, J. D. (2003). The power of learning environments and the quality of student learning. In E. de Corte, L. Verschaffel, N. Entwistle, & J. Van Merriënboer (Eds.), Powerful learning environments: Unravelling basic components and dimensions (pp. 109–124). Oxford: Elsevier Science. Advances in Learning and Instruction Series.
Vrieze, G., Van Kuijk, J., & Van Kessel, N. (2001). Naar aantrekkelijk beroepsonderwijs met WPS [Towards attractive vocational education with workplace simulations]. Nijmegen: ITS, Stichting Katholieke Universiteit.
Windschitl, M. (2002). Framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: an analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political challenges facing teachers. Review of Educational Research, 72, 131–175. doi:10.3102/00346543072002131.
Young, E. (2010). Challenges to conceptualizing and actualizing culturally relevant pedagogy: how viable is the theory in classroom practice? Journal of Teacher Education, 61, 248–260. doi:10.1177/0022487109359775.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000a). Attaining self-regulation. A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). San Diego: Academic Press.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000b). Self-efficacy: an essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 82–91. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1016.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (2008). Motivation: an essential dimension of self-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and self- regulated learning: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 1–30). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Zimmerman, B. J., Bonner, S., & Kovach, R. (1996). Developing self-regulated learners. Beyond achievement to self-efficacy. Washington: American Psychological Association.
Zitter, I. (2010). Designing for learning: Studying learning environments in higher professional education from a design perspective. Doctoral dissertation, Utrecht University/University of Applied Sciences, Utrecht.
Zitter, I., & Hoeve, A. (2012). Hybrid learning environments: Merging learning and work processes to facilitate knowledge integration and transitions. OECD Education Working Paper no. 81.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the three anonymous reviewers for their extensive reviews with suggestions for improving this paper. This research was funded by NWO.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jossberger, H., Brand-Gruwel, S., van de Wiel, M.W.J. et al. Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching in Workplace Simulations in Vocational Education. Vocations and Learning 8, 287–318 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-015-9137-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-015-9137-0