Abstract
Social media users often engage with more than one platform, spending almost three hours per day on these sites. These platforms provide social rewards to individuals, reinforcing their use. Importantly, due to this inherently reinforcing nature, some individuals may develop problematic social media use (PSMU), where they continue to use social media despite experiencing negative consequences such as psychological distress and/or impaired daily functioning. Researchers have found that PSMU is associated with worsened mental health. However, current research has primarily investigated these relationships across all platforms broadly, or with respect to only a single platform (usually Facebook). No research has investigated these relationships with respect to multiple, distinct, social media platforms, and only limited research has investigated mental health in relation to the problematic use of Twitter and Snapchat, in particular. To address this, we conducted a survey to assess PSMU of five different social media platforms (Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok, and Twitter), as well as two measures of mental health (depression and loneliness). Linear regression models revealed that greater problematic use of all five platforms is related with greater depression and loneliness. In other words, the greater one’s problematic use of each platform, the poorer their mental health. We discuss our results, along with limitations and future directions for research on the role of PSMU in mental health.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data will be made available upon request.
References
Ahmed, S., & Dixon, M. J. (2023). Instagram, depression, and dark flow - using social media as a maladaptive coping mechanism. Journal of Addiction Research, 7(2), 61–69. https://doi.org/10.33140/jar.07.02.05.
Andreassen, C., & Pallesen, S. (2014). Social Network Site Addiction - An Overview. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 20(25), 4053–4061. https://doi.org/10.2174/13816128113199990616.
Andreassen, C. S., Torsheim, T., Brunborg, G. S., & Pallesen, S. (2012). Development of Facebook addiction scale. Psychological Reports, 110(2), 501–517. https://doi.org/10.2466/02.09.18.PR0.110.2.501-517.
Andreassen, C. S., Pallesen, S., & Griffiths, M. D. (2017). The relationship between addictive use of social media, narcissism, and self-esteem: Findings from a large national survey. Addictive Behaviors, 64, 287–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.03.006.
Atroszko, P. A., Balcerowska, J. M., Bereznowski, P., Biernatowska, A., Pallesen, S., & Andreassen, S., C (2018). Facebook addiction among Polish undergraduate students: Validity of measurement and relationship with personality and well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 85, 329–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.001.
Bányai, F., Zsila, Á., Király, O., Maraz, A., Elekes, Z., Griffiths, M. D., Andreassen, C. S., & Demetrovics, Z. (2017). Problematic social media use: Results from a large-scale nationally representative adolescent sample. PLOS ONE, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169839.
Barreto, M., Victor, C., Hammond, C., Eccles, A., Richins, M. T., & Qualter, P. (2021). Loneliness around the world: Age, gender, and cultural differences in loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110066.
Biolcati, R., Mancini, G., Pupi, V., & Mugheddu, V. (2018). Facebook addiction: Onset predictors. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(6), 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7060118.
Brailovskaia, J., & Margraf, J. (2022). The relationship between active and passive facebook use, facebook flow, depression symptoms and Facebook addiction: A three-month investigation. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 10, 100374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100374.
Carbonell, X., & Panova, T. (2017). A critical consideration of social networking sites’ addiction potential. Addiction Research & Theory, 25(1), 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2016.1197915.
Cheng, C., Lau, Y., Chan, L., & Luk, J. W. (2021). Prevalence of social media addiction across 32 nations: Meta-analysis with subgroup analysis of classification schemes and cultural values. Addictive Behaviors, 117, 106845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106845.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2022). Major depression. National Institute of Mental Health. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/major-depression.
Diagnostic (2013). and Statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Association.
Foroughi, B., Griffiths, M. D., Iranmanesh, M., & Salamzadeh, Y. (2021). Associations between Instagram addiction, academic performance, social anxiety, depression, and Life Satisfaction among University students. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00510-5.
Gallo, J. J., Anthony, J. C., & Muthen, B. O. (1994). Age differences in the symptoms of depression: A latent trait analysis. Journal of Gerontology, 49(6). https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/49.6.p251.
Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., & Demetrovics, Z. (2014). Social networking addiction. Behavioral Addictions, 119–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-407724-9.00006-9.
Hilt, L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2009). The emergence of gender differences in depression in adolescence (pp. 111–135). Handbook of depression in adolescents.
Hong, F. Y., Huang, D. H., Lin, H. Y., & Chiu, S. L. (2014). Analysis of the psychological traits, facebook usage, and Facebook addiction model of Taiwanese University students. Telematics and Informatics, 31(4), 597–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2014.01.001.
Huang, C. (2020). A meta-analysis of the problematic social media use and mental health. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 002076402097843. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020978434.
Koc, M., Gulyagci, S., & Cyberpsychology (2013). Behavior and Social Networking, 16(4), 279–284. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0249.
Kroenke, K., & Spitzer, R. L. (2002). The PHQ-9: A new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric Annals, 32(9), 509–515. https://doi.org/10.3928/0048-5713-20020901-06.
Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Online social networking and addiction—a review of the psychological literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(9), 3528–3552. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8093528.
Laconi, S., Verseillié, E., & Chabrol, H. (2018). Exploration of the problematic Twitter, Facebook uses and their relationships with psychopathological symptoms among Facebook users. International Journal of High Risk Behaviors and Addiction, In Press(In Press). https://doi.org/10.5812/ijhrba.61775.
Lewin, K. M., Ellithorpe, M. E., & Meshi, D. (2022). Social comparison and problematic social media use: Relationships between five different social media platforms and three different social comparison constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 199, 111865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111865.
Marino, C., Gini, G., Vieno, A., & Spada, M. M. (2018). The associations between problematic Facebook use, psychological distress and well-being among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 226, 274–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.10.007.
Marroquín, B. (2011). Interpersonal emotion regulation as a mechanism of social support in depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(8), 1276–1290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.09.005.
Marttila, E., Koivula, A., & Räsänen, P. (2021). Does excessive social media use decrease subjective well-being? A longitudinal analysis of the relationship between problematic use, loneliness and life satisfaction. Telematics and Informatics, 59, 101556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101556.
Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., Benjet, C., Georgiades, K., & Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey replication–adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017.
Meshi, D., & Ellithorpe, M. E. (2021). Problematic social media use and social support received in real-life versus on social media: Associations with depression, anxiety and social isolation. Addictive Behaviors, 119, 106949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106949
Meshi, D., Tamir, D. I., & Heekeren, H. R. (2015). The emerging neuroscience of social media. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(12), 771–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.09.004.
Meshi, D., Turel, O., & Henley, D. (2020). Snapchat vs. Facebook: Differences in problematic use, behavioral change attempts, and trait social reward preferences. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 12, 100294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2020.100294.
Moretta, T., & Buodo, G. (2020). Problematic internet use and loneliness: How complex is the relationship? A short literature review. Current Addiction Reports, 7(2), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-020-00305-z.
O’Day, E. B., & Heimberg, R. G. (2021). Social media use, social anxiety, and loneliness: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 3, 100070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100070.
Pew Research Center (2021, April 7). Social Media Fact sheet. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. Retrieved November 8, 2022, from https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/social-media/.
Ponnusamy, S., Iranmanesh, M., Foroughi, B., & Hyun, S. S. (2020). Drivers and outcomes of Instagram addiction: Psychological well-being as moderator. Computers in Human Behavior, 107, 106294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106294.
Russell, D. W. (1996). UCLA Loneliness Scale (version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1), 20–40. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6601_2.
Sha, P., & Dong, X. (2021). Research on adolescents regarding the indirect effect of depression, anxiety, and stress between TikTok use disorder and memory loss. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16), 8820. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168820.
Smith, T. (2023). An exploratory investigation into social media use in Trinidad and Tobago: A comparison of Facebook and TikTok. Caribbean Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 2(1), 88–112.
Statista (2022). Social media usage in the United States. https://www.statista.com/study/40227/social-social-media-usage-in-the-united-states-statista-dossier/.
TikTok (2023, March 21). Celebrating our thriving community of 150 million Americans. Newsroom. Retrieved May 6, 2023, from https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/150-m-us-users.
Yao, N., Chen, J., Huang, S., Montag, C., & Elhai, J. D. (2023). Depression and social anxiety in relation to problematic TikTok use severity: The mediating role of boredom proneness and distress intolerance. Computers in Human Behavior, 145, 107751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107751.
Yin, Y., Cai, X., Ouyang, M., Li, S., Li, X., & Wang, P. (2023). Fomo and the brain: Loneliness and problematic social networking site use mediate the association between the topology of the resting-state EEG Brain Network and fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behavior, 141, 107624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107624.
Yurdagül, C., Kircaburun, K., Emirtekin, E., Wang, P., & Griffiths, M. D. (2019). Psychopathological consequences related to problematic Instagram use among adolescents: The mediating role of body image dissatisfaction and moderating role of gender. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 19(5), 1385–1397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00071-8.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Disclosure of interest
The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.
Compliance with ethical standards
This study was approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board and all participants provided informed consent. The authors declare no competing interests and this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Williams, M., Lewin, K.M. & Meshi, D. Problematic use of five different social networking sites is associated with depressive symptoms and loneliness. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05925-6
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05925-6