Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Impression management as a friend or foe? Testing mediating role of narcissism and moderating role of ingratiation

  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are identified with their CEOs in the subcontinent. We propose that CEOs, in the pursuit of managing their impressions, usually become narcissistic. This study investigates whether a CEO managing his impression becomes narcissistic and negatively impacts organizational performance. A narcissistic CEO usually greets ingratiation towards himself, which makes the situation even worse. In other words, subordinates’ ingratiation towards CEOs plays a moderating role between (i) impression management and organizational performance, (ii) impression management and narcissism, and (iii) narcissism and organizational performance. Hypotheses were tested through a moderated mediation model as data was collected from CEOs of 239 prominent SMEs operating in 23 clusters in Pakistan. Results affirmed that impression management leads to narcissism amongst CEOs, where ingratiation was reported to play a moderating role.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

Data available on request due to privacy/ethical restrictions.

References

  • Abatecola, G., & Cristofaro, M. (2018). Hambrick and Mason’s “upper echelons theory”: Evolution and open avenues. Journal of Management History, 26(1), 116–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad, R. (2020). The role of envy and psychological capital on performance in banking industry of Pakistan. Pakistan Social Sciences Review, 4(IV), 96–112. https://doi.org/10.35484/pssr.2020(4-iv)07

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad, R., Ishaq, M. I., & Raza, A. (2023). The blessing or curse of workplace friendship: Mediating role of organizational identification and moderating role of political skills. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 108, 103359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, D. R., Rose, P., & Anderson, C. P. (2006). The NPI-16 as a short measure of narcissism. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(4), 440–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atterbury, S., Mahoney, C., & Tregaskis, O. (2004). International survey methodology: experiences from the Cranet survey. In International survey methodology: experiences from the Cranet survey (pp. 437–450). Butterworth-Heinemann.

  • Back, M. D., Schmukle, S. C., & Egloff, B. (2010). Why are narcissists so charming at first sight? Decoding the narcissism–popularity link at zero acquaintance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(1), 132–145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bande, B., Jaramillo, F., Fernández-Ferrín, P., & Varela, J. A. (2019). Salesperson coping with work-family conflict: The joint effects of ingratiation and self-promotion. Journal of Business Research, 95, 143–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrick, M. R., Shaffer, J. A., & DeGrassi, S. W. (2009). What you see may not be what you get: Relationships among self-presentation tactics and ratings of interview and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(6), 1394–1411.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bass, A. E., Pfarrer, M., Milosevic, I., & Titus, V. (2021). Better to Be Loved by Some? Firm flaunting as an impression management strategy. Academy of Management Review, in press.

  • Bolino, M. C., Kacmar, K. M., Turnley, W. H., & Gilstrap, J. B. (2008). A multi-level review of impression management motives and behaviors. Journal of Management, 34(6), 1080–1109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolino, M. C., & Turnley, W. H. (1999). Measuring impression management in organizations: A scale development based on the Jones and Pittman taxonomy. Organizational Research Methods, 2(2), 187–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolino, M., Long, D., & Turnley, W. (2016). Impression management in organizations: Critical questions, answers, and areas for future research. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 3, 377–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braun, S. (2017). Leader narcissism and outcomes in organizations: A review at multiple levels of analysis and implications for future research. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–22.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Research in Personality, 36(6), 543–545.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buyl, T., Boone, C., & Wade, J. B. (2019). CEO narcissism, risk-taking, and resilience: An empirical analysis in US commercial banks. Journal of Management, 45(4), 1372–1400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cannella, S. F. B., Hambrick, D. C., Finkelstein, S., & Cannella, A. A. (2009). Strategic leadership: Theory and research on executives, top management teams, and boards. Strategic Management (Oxford University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, M. A., Geletkanycz, M. A., & Sanders, W. G. (2004). Upper echelons research revisited: Antecedents, elements, and consequences of top management team composition. Journal of Management, 30(6), 749–778.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatterjee, A., & Hambrick, D. C. (2007). It’s all about me: Narcissistic chief executive officers and their effects on company strategy and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 52(3), 351–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatterjee, A., & Hambrick, D. C. (2011). Executive personality, capability cues, and risk taking: How narcissistic CEOs react to their successes and stumbles. Administrative Science Quarterly, 56(2), 202–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatterjee, A., & Pollock, T. G. (2017). Master of puppets: How narcissistic CEOs construct their professional worlds. Academy of Management Review, 42(4), 703–725.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y.-Y., & Fang, W. (2008). The moderating effect of impression management on the organizational politics–performance relationship. Journal of Business Ethics, 79(3), 263–277.

    MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2004). Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 55, 591–621.

  • Clarke, I. E., Karlov, L., & Neale, N. J. (2015). The many faces of narcissism: Narcissism factors and their predictive utility. Personality and Individual Differences, 81, 90–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, M. S., Walter, F., & Bruch, H. (2008). Affective mechanisms linking dysfunctional behavior to performance in work teams: a moderated mediation study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(5), 945–958.

  • Din, S. U., Khan, M. A., Khan, M. J., & Khan, M. Y. (2021). Ownership structure and corporate financial performance in an emerging market: A dynamic panel data analysis. International Journal of Emerging Markets, ahead-of-p(ahead-of-print).

  • Edeh, F. O., Zayed, N. M., Darwish, S., Nitsenko, V., Hanechko, I., & Islam, K. M. A. (2023). Impression management and employee contextual performance in service organizations (enterprises). Emerging Science Journal, 7(2), 366–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eketu, C. A. (2016). Managers’ ingratiation and workers’ affective commitment in tourism based businesses: A study on downward impression management. International Journal on Customer Relations, 2(1), 12–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., Aldhobaiban, N., Murayama, K., Kobeisy, A., Gocłowska, M. A., & Khyat, A. (2018). Impression management and achievement motivation: Investigating substantive links. International Journal of Psychology, 53(1), 16–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitriastuti, T., Larasatie, P., & Vanderstraeten, A. (2021). Please like me: Ingratiation as a moderator of the impact of the perception of organizational politics on job satisfaction. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(14), 7455.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gerstner, W.-C., König, A., Enders, A., & Hambrick, D. C. (2013). CEO narcissism, audience engagement, and organizational adoption of technological discontinuities. Administrative Science Quarterly, 58(2), 257–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giacomin, M., Battaglini, A. M., & Rule, N. O. (2018). Grandiose narcissists seek status selectively. Social Cognition, 36(1), 20–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gooderham, P., Parry, E., & Ringdal, K. (2008). The impact of bundles of strategic human resource management practices on the performance of European firms. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(11), 2041–2056.

  • Graffin, S. D., Bundy, J., Porac, J. F., Wade, J. B., & Quinn, D. P. (2013). Falls from grace and the hazards of high status: The 2009 British MP expense scandal and its impact on parliamentary elites. Administrative Science Quarterly, 58(3), 313–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grieve, R., March, E., & Watkinson, J. (2020). Inauthentic self-presentation on facebook as a function of vulnerable narcissism and lower self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 102, 144–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grijalva, E., Harms, P. D., Newman, D. A., Gaddis, B. H., & Fraley, R. C. (2015). Narcissism and leadership: A meta-analytic review of linear and nonlinear relationships. Personnel Psychology, 68(1), 1–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hambrick, D. C. (2007). Upper echelons theory: An update (pp. 334–343). Academy of Management Briarcliff Manor 10510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrell-Cook, G., Ferris, G. R., & Dulebohn, J. H. (1999). Political behaviors as moderators of the perceptions of organizational politics—Work outcomes relationships. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(7), 1093–1105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. J., Kacmar, K. M., Zivnuska, S., & Shaw, J. D. (2007). The impact of political skill on impression management effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(1), 278–285.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horton, R. S., & Sedikides, C. (2009). Narcissistic responding to ego threat: When the status of the evaluator matters. Journal of Personality, 77(5), 1493–1526.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, G., Zhao, H. H., Niu, X., Ashford, S. J., & Lee, C. (2013). Reducing job insecurity and increasing performance ratings: Does impression management matter? Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(5), 852–862.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hult, G. T. M., Ketchen, D. J., Griffith, D. A., Chabowski, B. R., Hamman, M. K., Dykes, B. J., Pollitte, W. A., & Cavusgil, S. T. (2008). An assessment of the measurement of performance in international business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(6), 1064–1080.

  • Jones, E. E., & Pittman, T. S. (1982). In J. Suls (Ed.), Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation psychological perspectives on the self (pp. 231–261). Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. E. (1964). Ingratiation. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

  • Kacmar, K. M., & Carlson, D. S. (1997). Further validation of the perceptions of politics scale (POPS): A multiple sample investigation. Journal of Management, 23(5), 627–658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karathanos, P., Pettypool, M. D., & Troutt, M. D. (1994). Sudden lost meaning: A catastrophe? Management Decision, 1994(32), 15–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeves, G. D., Westphal, J. D., & McDonald, M. L. (2017). Those closest wield the sharpest knife: How ingratiation leads to resentment and social undermining of the CEO. Administrative Science Quarterly, 62(3), 484–523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J., Lee, H. W., Gao, H., & Johnson, R. E. (2021). When CEOs are all about themselves: Perceived CEO narcissism and middle managers’ workplace behaviors amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Applied Psychology, 106(9), 1283–1298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y. M. (2022). Transformational leadership a study on the impact of job performance focus on small business owners. European Journal of Molecular & Clinical Medicine, 9(08), 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klotz, A. C., He, W., Yam, K. C., Bolino, M. C., Wei, W., & Houston, L., III. (2018). Good actors but bad apples: Deviant consequences of daily impression management at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(10), 1145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(1), 34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liao, S., Zhou, X., Guo, Z., & Li, Z. (2019). How does leader narcissism influence employee voice: The attribution of leader impression management and leader-member exchange. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(10), 1819.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liden, R. C., & Mitchell, T. R. (1988). Ingratiatory behaviors in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, 13(4), 572–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maher, L. P., Gallagher, V. C., Rossi, A. M., Ferris, G. R., & Perrewé, P. L. (2018). Political skill and will as predictors of impression management frequency and style: A three-study investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 107, 276–294.

  • Meo, M. S., Ali, S., Islam, M. S. U., Qammar, R., Cheema, S. M., & Karim, M. Z. A. (2023). Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the tourism and hospitality industry of Pakistan: An insight from techno and social-economics crisis perspective. In Tourism and hospitality in Asia: Crisis, resilience and recovery (pp. 75–95). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. D., & Campbell, W. K. (2008). Comparing clinical and social‐personality conceptualizations of narcissism. Journal of Personality, 76(3), 449–476.

  • Miller, J. D., Hoffman, B. J., Gaughan, E. T., Gentile, B., Maples, J., & Keith Campbell, W. (2011). Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism: A nomological network analysis. Journal of Personality, 79(5), 1013–1042.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nadkarni, S., & Herrmann, P. O. L. (2010). CEO personality, strategic flexibility, and firm performance: The case of the Indian business process outsourcing industry. Academy of Management Journal, 53(5), 1050–1073.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nevicka, B., & Sedikides, C. (2021). Employee narcissism and promotability prospects. Journal of Personality, 89(4), 847–862.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, U. B., Hannibal, M., & Larsen, N. N. (2018). Reviewing emerging markets: Context, concepts and future research. International Journal of Emerging Markets, 13(6), 1679–1698.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Reilly, C. A., III, Doerr, B., & Chatman, J. A. (2018). “See you in court”: How CEO narcissism increases firms’ vulnerability to lawsuits. The Leadership Quarterly, 29(3), 365–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozsozgun Caliskan, A., Esen, E., & Barkemeyer, R. (2021). Impression management tactics in the CEO statements of Turkish sustainability reports. Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility, 30(4), 485–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peng, T. J. A., Pike, S., & Roos, G. (2007). Intellectual capital and performance indicators: Taiwanese healthcare sector. Journal of intellectual capital, 8(3), 538–556.

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raskin, R., & Terry, H. (1988). A principal-components analysis of the narcissistic personality inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(5), 890–902.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Real, J. C., Roldán, J. L., & Leal, A. (2014). From entrepreneurial orientation and learning orientation to business performance: analysing the mediating role of organizational learning and the moderating effects of organizational size. British Journal of Management, 25(2), 186–208.

  • Reina, C. S., Zhang, Z., & Peterson, S. J. (2014). CEO grandiose narcissism and firm performance: The role of organizational identification. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(5), 958–971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resick, C. J., Whitman, D. S., Weingarden, S. M., & Hiller, N. J. (2009). The bright-side and the dark-side of CEO personality: Examining core self-evaluations, narcissism, transformational leadership, and strategic influence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(6), 1365.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rizov, M., & Croucher, R. (2009). Human resource management and performance in European firms. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 33(2), 253–272.

  • Roberts, R., Woodman, T., & Sedikides, C. (2018). Pass me the ball: Narcissism in performance settings. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(1), 190–213.

  • Rosenfeld, P., Giacalone, R. A., & Riordan, C. A. (1995). Impression management in organizations: Theory, measurement, practice. Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, S. A., & Pittinsky, T. L. (2006). Narcissistic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 617–633.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rupp, D. E., Shao, R., Skarlicki, D. P., Paddock, E. L., Kim, T. Y., & Nadisic, T. (2018). Corporate social responsibility and employee engagement: The moderating role of CSR-specific relative autonomy and individualism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(5), 559–579. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sedikides, C., & Campbell, W. K. (2017). Narcissistic force meets systemic resistance: The energy clash model. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(3), 400–421.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • SMEDA (2021). No Title. Cluster Profiles. https://smeda.org/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=40&Itemid=742. Accessed 22 Nov 2021

  • Smith, M. B., & Webster, B. D. (2018). Narcissus the innovator? The relationship between grandiose narcissism, innovation, and adaptability. Personality and Individual Differences, 121, 67–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, J. T. (2013). Impression management theory and social psychological research. Academic Press.

  • Tedeschi, J. T., & Norman, N. (1985). Social power, self-presentation, and the self. The Self and Social Life, 293, 293–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnley, W. H., & Bolino, M. C. (2001). Achieving desired images while avoiding undesired images: Exploring the role of self-monitoring in impression management. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(2), 351–360.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uppal, N. (2020). CEO narcissism, CEO duality, TMT agreeableness and firm performance: An empirical investigation in auto industry in India. European Business Review, 32(4), 573–590.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wayne, S. J., & Kacmar, K. M. (1991). The effects of impression management on the performance appraisal process. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 48(1), 70–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westphal, J. D., & Stern, I. (2006). The other pathway to the boardroom: Interpersonal influence behavior as a substitute for elite credentials and majority status in obtaining board appointments. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51(2), 169–204.

  • Wiesenfeld, B. M., Wurthmann, K. A., & Hambrick, D. C. (2008). The stigmatization and devaluation of elites associated with corporate failures: A process model. Academy of Management Review, 33(1), 231–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wink, P. (1991). Two faces of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 590–597.

    MathSciNet  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, R. E., & Mitchell, T. R. (1981). Manager behavior in a social context: The impact of impression management on attributions and disciplinary actions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 28(3), 356–378.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wortman, C. B., & Linsenmeier, J. A. W. (1977). Interpersonal attraction and techniques of ingratiation in organizational settings. In New directions in organizational behavior (pp. 133–178). St. Clair Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xin, Y., Khan, R. U., Dagar, V., & Qian, F. (2023). Do international resources configure SMEs’ sustainable performance in the digital era? Evidence from Pakistan. Resources Policy, 80, 103169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zivnuska, S., Kacmar, K. M., Witt, L. A., Carlson, D. S., & Bratton, V. K. (2004). Interactive effects of impression management and organizational politics on job performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 25(5), 627–640.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Imperial College of Business Studies, Lahore, Pakistan

    Rehan Ahmad

  2. Quaid-i-Azam School of Management Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

    Muhammad Ishtiaq Ishaq

  3. Excelia Business School, La Rochelle, France

    Ali Raza

Authors
  1. Rehan Ahmad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Muhammad Ishtiaq Ishaq
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ali Raza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rehan Ahmad.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

No

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

Table 4

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ahmad, R., Ishaq, M.I. & Raza, A. Impression management as a friend or foe? Testing mediating role of narcissism and moderating role of ingratiation. Curr Psychol 43, 3657–3668 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04628-8

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04628-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation