Abstract
As contemporary society has become more open, people are treating others with a more tolerant attitude. However, some still exhibit violence and cause harm to gender-nonconforming individuals, with some studies suggesting a positive relationship between gender nonconformity and victimization in recent decades. The current study used a three-level meta-analysis to examine the reliability of the effect size and a series of moderating effects between gender nonconformity and victimization. Based on 81 independent samples (N = 53.183), the effect size obtained in this study was r = .149 (95% CI: [ 0.130, 0.168]), indicating a slight, positive, and significant association between gender nonconformity and victimization. The association between gender nonconformity and verbal victimization was stronger than for other types of victimization; gender nonconformity and victimization were also moderated by bullying members, and their relationship was stronger for peer victimization; whereas the relationship between gender nonconformity and victimization was stronger for men; higher study quality resulted in a stronger association between gender nonconformity and victimization. The above results suggest a significant relationship between gender nonconformity and victimization and point to future research processes that focus on the type of victimization, bullying membership, gender, and study quality in the relationship between the two.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Analysis code and materials are available in the Online Supplemental Materials (https://osf.io/5wnjk/?view_only=9a2dc27886114a0988fb6b12fdfa8eb4).
Code availability
N/A.
References
* Indicates studies used in the meta-analysis
Alanko, K., Santtila, P., Witting, K., Varjonen, M., Jern, P., Johansson, A., von der Pahlen, B., & Sandnabba, K. (2009). Psychiatric symptoms and same-sex sexual attraction and behavior in light of childhood gender atypical behavior and parental relationships. The Journal of Sex Research, 46(5), 494–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490902846487
Alfieri, T., Ruble, D. N., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Gender stereotypes during adolescence: developmental changes and the transition to junior high school. Developmental Psychology, 32(6), 1129–1137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.32.6.1129
Archer, J., & Coyne, S. M. (2005). An Integrated Review of Indirect, Relational, and Social Aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(3), 212–230. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_2
*Aspenlieder, L., Buchanan, C. M., McDougall, P., & Sippola, L. K. (2009). Gender Nonconformity and Peer Victimization in Pre- and Early Adolescence. 3(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-2009-3103
Assink, M., van der Put, C. E., Hoeve, M., de Vries, S. L. A., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Oort, F. J. (2015). Risk factors for persistent delinquent behavior among juveniles: a meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 42, 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.08.002
Assink, M., & Wibbelink, C. J. M., Klinische Psychologie (Psychologie, FMG), & Research Institute for Child Development and Education. (2016). Fitting three-level meta-analytic models in R: A step-by-step tutorial. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 12(3),154–174. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.12.3.p154
Attar-Schwartz, S. (2009). Peer sexual harassment victimization at school: the roles of student characteristics, cultural affiliation, and school factors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79(3), 407–420. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016553
Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(3), 524–536. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.3.524
Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: a conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.43
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036215
Berndt, T. J. (1982). The features and effects of friendship in early adolescence. Child Development, 53(6), 1447. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130071
Boldizar, J. P. (1991). Assessing sex typing and androgyny in children: the children’s sex role inventory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 505–515. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.27.3.505
*Bos, H., & Sandfort, T. (2015). Gender nonconformity, sexual orientation, and dutch adolescents’ relationship with peers. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(5), 1269–1279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0461-5
Bryant, A. L. (1993). Hostile hallways: the AAUW survey on sexual harassment in America’s schools. Journal of School Health, 63(8), 355–358.
*Buchanan, C. M., & McDougall, P. (2017). Retrospective Accounts of sexual peer victimization in adolescence: do social status and gender-conformity play a role? Sex Roles, 76(7–8), 485–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0672-4
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676
Caceres, B. A., Jackman, K. B., Ferrer, L., Cato, K. D., & Hughes, T. L. (2019). A scoping review of sexual minority women’s health in Latin America and the Caribbean. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 94, 85–97.
Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: a Meta-Analytic review of gender differences, Intercorrelations, and relations to Maladjustment. Child Development, 79(5), 1185–1229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x
Chen, E. C., Boyd, D. M., & Cunningham, C. A. (2020). Demarginalizing stigmatized identities of transgender and gender nonconforming individuals through affirmative Group Therapy. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 70(4), 552–578. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207284.2020.1755291
Cheung, M. W. L. (2014). Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta-analyses: a structural equation modeling approach. Psychological Methods, 19(2), 211–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032968
*Collier, K. L., Bos, H. M. W., & Sandfort, T. G. M. (2013). Homophobic name-calling among secondary School students and its implications for Mental Health. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(3), 363–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9823-2
Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics (pp.xvii, 334). Stanford University Press.
Cota, A. A., Reid, A., & Dion, K. L. (1991). Construct validity of a diagnostic ratio measure of gender stereotypes. Sex Roles, 25(3), 225–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289856
Courtenay, W. H. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: a theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine, 50(10), 1385–1401. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00390-1
Cronbach, L. J. (1975). Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 30(2), 116–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076829
Daigle, L. E., & Mummert, S. J. (2014). Sex-role identification and violent victimization: gender differences in the role of masculinity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(2), 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505148
D’augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2008). Gender atypicality and sexual orientation development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth: prevalence, sex differences, and parental responses. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 12(1–2), 121–143. https://doi.org/10.1300/J529v12n01_08
*D’Augelli, A. R., Pilkington, N. W., & Hershberger, S. L. (2002). Incidence and mental health impact of sexual orientation victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths in high school. School Psychology Quarterly, 17(2), 148–167. https://doi.org/10.1521/scpq.17.2.148.20854
*Drury, K., Bukowski, W. M., Velásquez, A. M., & Stella-Lopez, L. (2013). Victimization and gender identity in single-sex and mixed-sex schools: examining contextual variations in pressure to conform to gender norms. Sex Roles, 69(7–8), 442–454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0118-6
Eagly, A. H., wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: a current appraisal. The Developmental Social psychology of gender. Psychology Press.
Eder, D., & Parker, S. (1987). The cultural production and reproduction of gender: the effect of extracurricular activities on peer-group culture. Sociology of Education, 60(3), 200. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112276
Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: a multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37(4), 451–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.451
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 69(1), 275–298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719
Felix, E. D., & McMahon, S. D. (2006). Gender and multiple forms of peer victimization: how do they influence adolescent psychosocial adjustment? Violence and Victims, 21(6), 707–724. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.21.6.707
Felix, E. D., & McMahon, S. D. (2007). The role of gender in peer victimization among youth: a study of incidence, interrelations, and social cognitive correlates. Journal of School Violence, 6(3), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1300/J202v06n03_03
Fineran, S., Bennett, L., & Sacco, T. (2003). Peer sexual harassment and peer violence among adolescents in Johannesburg and Chicago. International Social Work, 46(3), 387–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/00208728030463009
Forbes, A. (2014). Define “Sex”: legal outcomes for transgender individuals in the United States. Handbook of LGBT Communities, Crime, and Justice, 387–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9188-0_18
Gavin, L. A., & Furman, W. (1989). Age differences in adolescents’ perceptions of their peer groups. Developmental Psychology, 25(5), 827–834. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.25.5.827
Gooren, L. J., Sungkaew, T., Giltay, E. J., & Guadamuz, T. E. (2015). Cross-sex hormone use, functional health and mental well-being among transgender men (Toms) and transgender women (Kathoeys) in Thailand. Culture Health & Sexuality, 17(1), 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2014.950982
*Gordon, A. R., Conron, K. J., Calzo, J. P., White, M. T., Reisner, S. L., & Austin, S. B. (2018). Gender expression, violence, and bullying victimization: findings from probability samples of high school students in 4 US School Districts. Journal of School Health, 88(4), 306–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12606
Gordon, A. R., Krieger, N., Okechukwu, C. A., Haneuse, S., Samnaliev, M., Charlton, B. M., & Austin, S. B. (2017). Decrements in health-related quality of life associated with gender nonconformity among U.S. adolescents and young adults. Quality of Life Research, 26(8), 2129–2138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-017-1545-1
Heilman, M. E. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Research in Organizational Behavior, 32, 113–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2012.11.003
Herek, G. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(1), 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508316477
Herek, G. M., & McLemore, K. A. (2013). Sexual prejudice. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 309–333. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143826
Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2002). Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Statistics in Medicine, 21(11), 1539–1558. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.1186
Hill, J. P., & Lynch, M. E. (1983). The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence. In J. Brooks-Gunn, & A. C. Petersen (Eds.), Girls at Puberty (pp. 201–228). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0354-9_10
Horn, S. S. (2006). Heterosexual adolescents’ and young adults’ beliefs and attitudes about homosexuality and gay and lesbian peers. Cognitive Development, 21(4), 420–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2006.06.007
Hox, J., Moerbeek, M., & van de Schoot, R. (2002). Multilevel Analysis (0 ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410604118
Hui, B. P. H., Ng, J. C. K., Berzaghi, E., Cunningham-Amos, L. A., & Kogan, A. (2020). Rewards of kindness? A meta-analysis of the link between prosociality and well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 146(12), 1084–1116. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000298
Institute of Medicine, Committee on, Lesbian, G., Bisexual, and, Transgender Health Issues and Research Gaps and, Opportunities, & Garofalo, R. (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: building a foundation for better understanding. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13128
*Jackson, E. F., Bussey, K., & Trompeter, N. (2020). Over and above gender differences in cyberbullying: relationship of gender typicality to Cyber victimization and perpetration in adolescents. Journal of School Violence, 19(4), 623–635. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2020.1808790
Keng, S. L., & Liew, K. W. L. (2017). Trait mindfulness and self-compassion as moderators of the association between gender nonconformity and psychological health. Mindfulness, 8(3), 615–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0639-0
Konijn, C., Admiraal, S., Baart, J., van Rooij, F., Stams, G. J., Colonnesi, C., Lindauer, R., & Assink, M. (2019). Foster care placement instability: a meta-analytic review. Children and Youth Services Review, 96, 483–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.12.002
Kwan, K. M. W., Shi, S. Y., Nabbijohn, A. N., MacMullin, L. N., VanderLaan, D. P., & Wong, W. I. (2020). Children’s appraisals of gender nonconformity: developmental pattern and intervention. Child Development, 91(4), Q1. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13316
*Levitt, H. M., Puckett, J. A., Ippolito, M. R., & Horne, S. G. (2012). Sexual minority women’s gender identity and expression: Challenges and Supports. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 16(2), 153–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/10894160.2011.605009
Lippa, R. A. (2008). The relation between childhood gender nonconformity and adult masculinity–femininity and anxiety in heterosexual and homosexual men and women. Sex Roles, 59(9), 684–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9476-5
Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis (pp.ix, 247). Sage Publications, Inc.
Logie, C. (2011). Exploring the experiences of sexual stigma, gender non-conformity stigma and HIV-related stigma and their associations with depression and life satisfaction among men who have sex with men in South India [Thesis]. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/26291
Logie, C. H., Perez-Brumer, A., Woolley, E., Madau, V., Nhlengethwa, W., Newman, P. A., & Baral, S. D. (2018). Exploring experiences of heterosexism and coping strategies among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons in Swaziland. Gender & Development, 26(1), 15–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2018.1429088
Longobardi, C., Prino, L. E., Fabris, M. A., & Settanni, M. (2019). Violence in school: an investigation of physical, psychological, and sexual victimization reported by italian adolescents. Journal of School Violence, 18(1), 49–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2017.1387128
Lovakov, A., & Agadullina, E. R. (2021). Empirically derived guidelines for effect size interpretation in social psychology. European Journal of Social Psychology, 51(3), 485–504. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2752
Lowry, R., Johns, M. M., & Robin, L. E. (2020). Violence victimization, Substance Use Disparities, and gender-nonconforming youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 58(5), e159–e169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.12.021
MacMullin, L. N., Bokeloh, L. M., Nabbijohn, A. N., Santarossa, A., van der Miesen, A. I. R., Peragine, D. E., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2021). Examining the relation between gender nonconformity and Psychological Well-Being in children: the roles of peers and parents. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50(3), 823–841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01832-6
Marcus, N. L., Logie, C. H., Jones, N., Bryan, N., & Levermore, K. (2020). “It’s because of our culture”: navigating gender norms and coping with sexual stigma among lesbian, bisexual, and queer women in Jamaica. In N. Nakamura, & C. H. Logie (Eds.), LGBTQ mental health: international perspectives and experiences (pp. 59–74). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000159-005
Martin-Storey, A., & Baams, L. (2019). Gender nonconformity during adolescence: links with stigma, sexual minority status, and Psychosocial Outcomes. Handbook of Children and Prejudice, 583–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12228-7_33
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
*Mitchell, K. J., Ybarra, M. L., & Korchmaros, J. D. (2014). Sexual harassment among adolescents of different sexual orientations and gender identities. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(2), 280–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.008
Mitsopoulou, E., & Giovazolias, T. (2015). Personality traits, empathy and bullying behavior: a meta-analytic approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 21, 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.007
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., The PRISMA Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and Meta-analyses: the PRISMA Statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
Moher, D., Pham, B., Jones, A., Cook, D. J., Jadad, A. R., Moher, M., Tugwell, P., & Klassen, T. P. (1998). Does quality of reports of randomised trials affect estimates of intervention efficacy reported in meta-analyses? The Lancet, 352(9128), 609–613. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)01085-X
Nabbijohn, A. N., MacMullin, L. N., Kwan, K. M. W., Santarossa, A., Peragine, D. E., Wong, W. I., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2020). Children’s bias in appraisals of gender-variant peers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 196, 104865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104865
Navarro, R., Larrañaga, E., & Yubero, S. (2011). Bullying-victimization problems and aggressive tendencies in spanish secondary schools students: the role of gender stereotypical traits. Social Psychology of Education, 14(4), 457–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-011-9163-1
*Navarro, R., Larrañaga, E., & Yubero, S. (2016). Gender identity, gender-typed personality traits and school bullying: victims, bullies and bully-victims. Child Indicators Research, 9(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-015-9300-z
Ocha, W. (2012). Transsexual emergence: gender variant identities in Thailand. Culture Health & Sexuality, 14(5), 563–575. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2012.672653
Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at school: basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(7), 1171–1190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01229.x
Pascoe, C. J. (2011). Dude, you’re a fag: masculinity and sexuality in high school, with a new preface. Dude, you’re a Fag. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520950696
Petterson, L. J., VanderLaan, D. P., & Vasey, P. L. (2017). Sex, sexual orientation, gender atypicality, and indicators of depression and anxiety in Childhood and Adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46(5), 1383–1392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0690-x
*Plöderl, M., & Fartacek, R. (2009). Childhood gender nonconformity and harassment as predictors of suicidality among gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual Austrians. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38(3), 400–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9244-6
Poteat, V. P., & Anderson, C. J. (2012). Developmental changes in sexual prejudice from early to late adolescence: the effects of gender, race, and ideology on different patterns of change. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1403–1415. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026906
Qian, M., Wang, Y., Wong, W. I., fu, Zuo, B., & Vanderlaan, D. (2021). The effects of race, gender, and gender-typed behavior on children’s friendship appraisals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50. Q1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01825-5
R Core Team (2013). R: The R Project for Statistical Computing. https://www.r-project.org/
*Roberts, A. L., Rosario, M., Corliss, H. L., Koenen, K. C., & Austin, S. B. (2012). Childhood gender nonconformity: a risk indicator for childhood abuse and posttraumatic stress in youth. Pediatrics, 129(3), 410–417. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-1804
Roberts, A. L., Rosario, M., Slopen, N., Calzo, J. P., & Austin, S. B. (2013). Childhood gender nonconformity, bullying victimization, and depressive symptoms across adolescence and early adulthood: An 11-Year longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(2), 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.11.006
Rose-Krasnor, L. (1997). The nature of social competence: A theoretical review. Social Development, 6(1), 111–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.1997.tb00097.x
Rosenthal, R. (1995). Writing meta-analytic reviews. Psychological Bulletin, 118(2), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.118.2.183
Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Parker, J. G. (2006). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., 3 vol., pp. 571–645). Wiley.
Ruble, D. N., Martin, C. L., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2006). Gender development. Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., 3 vol., pp. 858–932). Wiley.
Sandfort, T. G. M. (2005). Sexual orientation and gender: stereotypes and beyond. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34(6), 595–611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-005-7907-8
Siddiqua, R., & Mondol, M. H. (2018). Peer victimization among secondary school going children: a descriptive study in Tangail, Bangladesh. International Research Journal on Police Science, 4, 15.
Skidmore, W. C., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., & Bailey, J. M. (2006). Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35(6), 685–697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9108-5
Skorska, M. N., Coome, L. A., Saokhieo, P., Kaewthip, O., Chariyalertsak, S., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2020). Handedness and birth order among heterosexual men, gay men, and Sao Praphet Song in Northern Thailand. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(7), 2431–2448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01774-z
*Smith, D. S., & Juvonen, J. (2017). Do I fit in? Psychosocial ramifications of low gender typicality in early adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 60, 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.07.014
Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. C. (2007). Age differences in resistance to peer influence. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1531–1543. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531
Sterzing, P. R., Auslander, W. F., & Goldbach, J. T. (2014). An exploratory study of bullying involvement for sexual minority youth: bully-only, victim-only, and bully-victim roles. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 5(3), 321–337. https://doi.org/10.1086/677903
Stoddart, T., & Turiel, E. (1985). Children’s concepts of cross-gender activities. Child Development, 56(5), 1241–1252. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130239
Thoma, B. C., Eckstrand, K. L., Montano, G. T., Rezeppa, T. L., & Marshal, M. P. (2021). Gender nonconformity and minority stress among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals: a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1165–1183. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620968766
*Timmins, L., Rimes, K. A., & Rahman, Q. (2020). Minority stressors, rumination, and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 661–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01502-2
Tippett, N., & Wolke, D. (2014). Socioeconomic status and bullying: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 104(6), e48–e59. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.301960
*Toomey, R. B., Card, N. A., & Casper, D. M. (2014). Peers’ perceptions of gender nonconformity: Associations with overt and relational peer victimization and aggression in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 34(4), 463–485. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613495446
Toomey, R. B., McGuire, J. K., & Russell, S. T. (2012). Heteronormativity, school climates, and perceived safety for gender nonconforming peers. Journal of Adolescence, 35(1), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.03.001
*Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2010). Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1580–1589. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020705
Vaillancourt, T., Hymel, S., & McDougall, P. (2003). Bullying is power: implications for school-based intervention strategies. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 19(2), 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1300/J008v19n02_10
*Van Beusekom, G., Baams, L., Bos, H. M. W., Overbeek, G., & Sandfort, T. G. M. (2016). Gender nonconformity, homophobic peer victimization, and mental health: how same-sex attraction and biological sex matter. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(1), 98–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.993462
*Van Beusekom, G., Bos, H. M., Kuyper, L., Overbeek, G., & Sandfort, T. G. (2018). Gender nonconformity and mental health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults: homophobic stigmatization and internalized homophobia as mediators. Journal of Health Psychology, 23(9), 1211–1222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316643378
*Van Beusekom, G., Collier, K. L., Bos, H. M. W., Sandfort, T. G. M., & Overbeek, G. (2020). Gender nonconformity and peer victimization: sex and sexual attraction differences by Age. The Journal of Sex Research, 57(2), 234–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1591334
Van Den Noortgate, W., & Onghena, P. (2003). Multilevel meta-analysis: a comparison with traditional meta-analytical procedures. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63(5), 765–790. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164403251027
Van Geel, M., Vedder, P., & Tanilon, J. (2014). Are overweight and obese youths more often bullied by their peers? A meta-analysis on the relation between weight status and bullying. International Journal of Obesity, 38(10), 1263–1267. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2014.117
*van Lisdonk, J., van Bergen, D. D., Hospers, H. J., & Keuzenkamp, S. (2015). The importance of gender and gender nonconformity for same-sex-attracted Dutch youth’s perceived experiences of victimization across Social Contexts. Journal of LGBT Youth, 12(3), 233–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2015.1040188
Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting Meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v036.i03
Viechtbauer, W., & Cheung, M. W. L. (2010). Outlier and influence diagnostics for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 112–125. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.11
Vitoroulis, I., & Vaillancourt, T. (2015). Meta-analytic results of ethnic group differences in peer victimization. Aggressive Behavior, 41(2), 149–170. https://doi.org/10.1002/AB.21564
Waldo, C. R., Hesson-McInnis, M. S., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1998). Antecedents and consequences of victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual young people: a structural model comparing rural university and urban samples. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(2), 307–334. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022184704174
Wang, Y., Qian, M., Nabbijohn, A. N., Wen, F., Fu, G., Zuo, B., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2022). Culture influences the development of children’s gender-related peer preferences: evidence from China and Thailand. Developmental Science, 25(4), Q1. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13221
Wei, J., Zhang, W., Feng, L., & Gao, W. (2017). Comparison of fertility-sparing treatments in patients with early endometrial cancer and atypical complex hyperplasia: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Medicine, 96(37), e8034. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000008034
Werrbach, G. B., Grotevant, H. D., & Cooper, C. R. (1990). Gender differences in adolescents’ identity development in the domain of sex role concepts. Sex Roles, 23(7), 349–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289225
Winter, S., Webster, B., & Cheung, P. K. E. (2008). Measuring Hong Kong undergraduate students’ attitudes towards transpeople. Sex Roles, 59(9), 670–683. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9462-y
*Wright, M. F., & Wachs, S. (2020). Adolescents’ cyber victimization: the influence of technologies, gender, and gender stereotype traits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1293. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041293
Wyss, S. E. (2004). ‘This was my hell’: the violence experienced by gender non-conforming youth in US high schools. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 17(5), 709–730. https://doi.org/10.1080/0951839042000253676
Xu, Y., Norton, S., & Rahman, Q. (2021). Childhood gender nonconformity and the stability of self-reported sexual orientation from adolescence to young adulthood in a birth cohort. Developmental Psychology, 57, 557–569. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001164
*Zhao, M., Xiao, D., Wang, W., Wu, R., Dewaele, A., Zhang, W., Buysse, A., Song, C., Guo, L., & Lu, C. (2021). Association of sexual minority status, gender nonconformity with childhood victimization and adulthood depressive symptoms: a path analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 111, 104822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104822
Zucker, K. J., Mitchell, J. N., Bradley, S. J., Tkachuk, J., Cantor, J. M., & Allin, S. M. (2006). The recalled childhood gender identity/gender role questionnaire: psychometric properties. Sex Roles, 54(7–8), 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9019-x
Zucker, K. J., Wilson-Smith, D. N., Kurita, J. A., & Stern, A. (1995). Children’s appraisals of sex-typed behavior in their peers. Sex Roles, 33(11), 703–725. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01544775
Further Reading
*Baams, L., Beek, T., Hille, H., Zevenbergen, F. C., & Bos, H. M. W. (2013). Gender nonconformity, perceived stigmatization, and psychological well-being in dutch sexual minority youth and young adults: A mediation analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(5), 765–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0055-z
*Bos, H., de Haas, S., & Kuyper, L. (2019). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults: Childhood gender nonconformity, childhood trauma, and sexual victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(3), 496–515. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516641285
*Bui, B. H. X. (2009). School absenteeism among sexual minority male youth: An exploration of risk and protective factors, Ph.D., New York University. https://www.proquest.com/docview/304959286/abstract/13E6BEBF85D746E5PQ/209
*Cannon, D. E. (2006). Coming out bad: A path model of bias -based victimization and mental distress in homosexual males [Ph.D., The University of Alabama]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/305349756/abstract/52DF2FA55A77454BPQ/1
*Carver, P. R. (2002). The relations of gender identity to preadolescents’ adjustment and friendship patterns [Ph.D., Florida Atlantic University]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/305530416/abstract/DA048923AA3047C1PQ/443
*Cisneros, S. G. (2018). Self-compassion and sensory processing sensitivity among sexual minorities: A minority stress framework [PhD Thesis, University of Illinois at Chicago]. In proquest dissertations and theses. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/self-compassion-sensory-processing-sensitivity/docview/2191600265/se-2
*Cook, S. H., Sandfort, T. G. M., Nel, J. A., & Rich, E. P. (2013). Exploring the relationship between gender nonconformity and mental health among black south african gay and bisexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(3), 327–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0087-z
*D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among Lesbian, Gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(11), 1462–1482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506293482
*D’haese, L., Dewaele, A., & Van Houtte, M. (2016). The relationship between childhood gender nonconformity and experiencing diverse types of homophobic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(9), 1634–1660. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515569063
*Dragowski, E. A., Halkitis, P. N., Grossman, A. H., & D’Augelli, A. R. (2011). Sexual orientation victimization and posttraumatic stress symptoms among Lesbian, Gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 23(2), 226–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2010.541028
*Everett, B. G., Steele, S. M., Matthews, A. K., & Hughes, T. L. (2019). Gender, race, and minority stress among sexual minority women: An Intersectional Approach. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(5), 1505–1517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-1421-x
*Ewing Lee, E. A., & Troop-Gordon, W. (2011). Peer processes and gender role development: Changes in gender atypicality related to negative peer treatment and children’s friendships. Sex Roles, 64(1–2), 90–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9883-2
*Feinstein, B. A., Goldfried, M. R., & Davila, J. (2012). The relationship between experiences of discrimination and mental health among lesbians and gay men: An examination of internalized homonegativity and rejection sensitivity as potential mechanisms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(5), 917–927. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029425
*Friedman, M. S., Koeske, G. F., Silvestre, A. J., Korr, W. S., & Sites, E. W. (2006). The impact of gender-role nonconforming behavior, bullying, and social support on suicidality among gay male youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38(5), 621–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.04.014
*Hamilton, C. J. (2011). Determinants of gay men’s identity and outness: Examining the roles of minority stress, masculinity, childhood gender behavior, social support and socioeconomic status. Boston College http://dlib.bc.edu/islandora/object/bc-ir:101516
*Hidalgo, M. A., Kuhns, L. M., Kwon, S., Mustanski, B., & Garofalo, R. (2015). The impact of childhood gender expression on childhood sexual abuse and psychopathology among young men who have sex with men. Child Abuse & Neglect Complete, 46, 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.05.005
*Johnston, M. L. (2008). Predictors of loneliness in gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. M.S., Iowa State University. https://www.proquest.com/docview/304611573/abstract/7FD41940A3364A7CPQ/114
*Kase, C. A. (2022). Predictors of physical health indicators and behaviors among young sexual minority women: Minority affirmative and stress perspectives [Ph.D.]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2718668131/abstract/6859A3F381A0488FPQ/82
*Klemmer, C. L., Rusow, J., Goldbach, J., Kattari, S. K., & Rice, E. (2021). Socially assigned gender nonconformity and school violence experience among transgender and cisgender adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(15–16), NP8567–NP8589. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519844781
*Landolt, M. A., Bartholomew, K., Saffrey, C., Oram, D., & Perlman, D. (2004). Gender nonconformity, childhood rejection, and adult attachment: A study of gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33(2), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ASEB.0000014326.64934.50
*Lehavot, K., & Simoni, J. M. (2011). The impact of minority stress on mental health and substance use among sexual minority women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(2), 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022839
*Levitt, H. M., & Horne, S. G. (2002). Explorations of lesbian-queer genders: Butch, Femme, androgynous or “Other”. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 6(2), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1300/J155v06n02_05
*McCutcheon, M. J. (2017). Non-conforming gender expression, victimization, and parental abuse related to suicidal ideation among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth [Ph.D., New York University]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1905029527/abstract/19BF66CAED17409DPQ/1
*Nelson, J. A. (2006). Disclosure of lesbian, gay, and bisexual identity by adolescents and young adults to health care providers and its relationship to sexual orientation victimization [PhD Thesis, College of Nursing]. In ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/disclosure-lesbian-gay-bisexual-identity/docview/305281252/se-2
*Pachankis, J. E., Rendina, H. J., Restar, A., Ventuneac, A., Grov, C., & Parsons, J. T. (2015). A minority stress—emotion regulation model of sexual compulsivity among highly sexually active gay and bisexual men. Health Psychology, 34(8), 829–840. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000180
*Pirooz, M. H. (2017). Differential effects of withdrawal on victimization among early adolescents [M.A., University of Nebraska]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1980383299/abstract/6859A3F381A0488FPQ/57
*Puckett, J. A., Maroney, M. R., Levitt, H. M., & Horne, S. G. (2016). Relations between gender expression, minority stress, and mental health in cisgender sexual minority women and men. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(4), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000201
*Reisen, C. A., Brooks, K. D., Zea, M. C., Poppen, P. J., & Bianchi, F. T. (2013). Can additive measures add to an intersectional understanding? Experiences of gay and ethnic discrimination among HIV-positive latino gay men. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(2), 208–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031906
*Rincon, C. M. (2016). Gender expression and the experience of discrimination, victimization, and psychological distress among currently serving sexual minority service members [Ph.D., Palo Alto University]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2054405780/abstract/6859A3F381A0488FPQ/87
*Sandfort, T., Bos, H., Knox, J., & Reddy, V. (2016). Gender nonconformity, discrimination, and mental health among black South African men who have sex with men: a further exploration of unexpected findings. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(3), 661–670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0565-6
*Sandfort, T. G. M., Melendez, R. M., & Diaz, R. M. (2007). Gender nonconformity, homophobia, and mental distress in latino gay and bisexual men. The Journal of Sex Research, 44(2), 181–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490701263819
*Wong, C. Y. (2005). Victimization experiences of Chinese gay men and lesbians in Hong Kong: A longitudinal study and an evaluation of a psychoeducational program on sexual identity management strategies [PhD Thesis, The Chinese University of Hong Kong]. In ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/victimization-experiences-chinese-gay-men/docview/305348116/se-2
*Young, R., & Sweeting, H. (2004). Adolescent bullying, relationships, psychological well-being, and gender-atypical behavior: a gender diagnosticity approach. Sex Roles, 50(7/8), 525–537. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000023072.53886.86
*Zosuls, K. M., Andrews, N. C. Z., Martin, C. L., England, D. E., & Field, R. D. (2016). Developmental changes in the link between gender typicality and peer victimization and exclusion. Sex Roles, 75(5), 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0608-z
Funding
The research was funded by the Science and Technology Program Project of Jiangxi Provincial Health Commission, China (Grant number: SKJP220211301).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
In conducting this meta-analysis, we have complied with APA ethical standards. The meta-analytic data in this manuscript has not been published, previously.
Conflict of interest
All authors disclosed no relevant relationships.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Hu, T., Jin, F. & Deng, H. Association between gender nonconformity and victimization: a meta-analysis. Curr Psychol 43, 281–299 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04269-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04269-x