Abstract
A growing body of research has documented that perceived discrimination is associated with problematic Internet use (PIU) among adolescents. However, the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relationship have not been thoroughly addressed. This study examined whether self-esteem mediated the relationship between perceived economic discrimination and PIU among adolescents. The study also sought to determine whether this mediating process was moderated by school connectedness. A total of 1010 adolescents (Mage = 14.95, SD = 1.70) were recruited to complete self-report questionnaires regarding perceived economic discrimination, PIU, self-esteem, and school connectedness. The results showed that there was an indirect effect of perceived economic discrimination on PIU via self-esteem. Furthermore, the moderating effect of school connectedness in the mediating process was marginally significant. These findings elucidate that self-esteem and school connectedness could be potential mechanisms underlying the relationship between perceived economic discrimination and PIU and provide important implications for the prevention and intervention of PIU among adolescents.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), 47–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01093.x.
al’Absi, M. (2011). Stress and addiction: Biological and psychological mechanisms. Academic Press.
Anderson, E. L., Steen, E., & Stavropoulos, V. (2017). Internet use and problematic internet use: A systematic review of longitudinal research trends in adolescence and emergent adulthood. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(4), 430–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2016.1227716.
Bao, Z., Chen, C., Zhang, W., Zhu, J., Jiang, Y., & Lai, X. (2016a). Family economic hardship and Chinese adolescents’ sleep quality: A moderated mediation model involving perceived economic discrimination and coping strategy. Journal of Adolescence, 50, 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.04.005.
Bao, Z., Zhang, W., Lai, X., & Wang, Y. (2016). Family income and adolescents’ sleep quality: The chain mediating effect of perceived discrimination and self-esteem. Journal of Psychological Science, 39(2), 96–102. https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20160215.
Bao, Z., Zhang, W., Li, D., Li, D., & Wang, Y. (2013). School climate and academic achievement among adolescents: A moderated mediation model. Psychological Developmental Education, 29(1), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2013.01.005.
Beard, K. W., & Wolf, E. M. (2001). Modification in the proposed diagnostic criteria for internet addiction. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 4, 377–383. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493101300210286.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.
Brown, B. B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. American Cancer Society.
Bryan, J., Williams, J. M., Kim, J., Morrison, S. S., & Caldwell, C. H. (2018). Perceived teacher discrimination and academic achievement among urban Caribbean black and African American youth: School bonding and family support as protective factors. Urban Education., 004208591880695. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085918806959.
Chapman, R. L., Buckley, L., Sheehan, M., & Shochet, I. (2013). School-based programs for increasing connectedness and reducing risk behavior: A systematic review. Educational Psychology Review, 25(1), 95–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9216-4.
Chu, A. T., & Chen, Y. C. (2012). The sample size study of moderated mediation effect. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, ). http://www.stat.nuk.edu.tw/upfile/graduate/paper/100-2/m0994407.pdf
CNNIC. (2020). 46th Statistical report on the development of Internet in China. http://www.cnnic.net.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwxzbg/hlwtjbg/202009/t20200929_71257.htm
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Davis, R. A. (2001). A cognitive-behavioral model of pathological internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 17(2), 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0747-5632(00)00041-8.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G * power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146.
Gentile, A., Servidio, R., Caci, B., & Boca, S. (2021). Social stigma and self-esteem as mediators of the relationship between body mass index and internet addiction disorder. An exploratory study. Current Psychology, 40, 1262–1270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0054-x.
Grossman, J. M., & Liang, B. (2008). Discrimination distress among Chinese American adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-007-9215-1.
Hautala, D., & Sittner, K. J. (2019). Longitudinal mechanisms linking perceived racial discrimination to aggressive delinquency among north American indigenous youth. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 56(5), 694–735. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427819834331.
Hay, C., & Meldrum, R. (2010). Bullying victimization and adolescent self-harm: Testing hypotheses from general strain theory. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(5), 466–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9502-0.
Hayes, A. F. (2015). An index and test of linear moderated mediation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 50(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2014.962683.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. University of California Press.
Huynh, V. W., & Gillen-O’Neel, C. (2016). Discrimination and sleep: The protective role of school belonging. Youth & Society, 48(5), 649–672. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X13506720.
Kam, J. A., Castro, F. G., & Wang, N. (2015). Parent-child communication’s attenuating effects on Mexican early adolescents’ perceived discrimination, depressive symptoms, and substance use. Human Communication Research, 41(2), 204–225. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12043.
Kort-Butler, L. A., & Hagewen, K. J. (2010). School-based extracurricular activity involvement and adolescent self-esteem: A growth-curve analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(5), 568–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9551-4.
Laconi, S., Tricard, N., & Chabrol, H. (2015). Differences between specific and generalized problematic internet uses according to gender, age, time spent online and psychopathological symptoms. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 236–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.006.
Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(3), 518–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.3.518.
Li, D., Li, X., Wang, Y., Zhao, L., Bao, Z., & Wen, F. (2013). School connectedness and problematic internet use in adolescents: A moderated mediation model of deviant peer affiliation and self-control. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(8), 1231–1242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9761-9.
Li, D., Xu, L., Bao, Z., Chen, W., Su, X., & Zhang, W. (2015). Family financial strain and adolescents’ depression: The effects of perceived discrimination and parent-adolescent attachment. Psychological Development and Education, 31(3), 342–349. https://doi.org/10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2015.03.12.
Li, D., Zhang, W., Li, X., Zhen, S., & Wang, Y. (2010). Stressful life events and problematic internet use by adolescent females and males: A mediated moderation model. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1199–1207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.031.
Libbey, H. (2004). Measuring student relationships to school: Attachment, bonding, connectedness, and engagement. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb08284.x.
Lin, S., Liu, D., Niu, G., & Longobardi, C. (2020). Active social network sites use and loneliness: The mediating role of social support and self-esteem. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00658-8.
Liu, S., Yu, C., Conner, B., Wang, S., Lai, W., & Zhang, W. (2017). Autistic traits and internet gaming addiction in Chinese children: The mediating effect of emotion regulation and school connectedness. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 68, 122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.07.011.
Liu, X., Zhao, J., & Shi, B. (2011). Dual effects of perceived discrimination and its psychological mechanism. Psychological Development and Education, 27(2), 216–223. https://doi.org/10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2011.02.013.
Markey, P. M., & Ferguson, C. J. (2017). Internet gaming addiction: Disorder or moral panic? The American Journal of Psychiatry, 174(3), 195–196. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16121341.
Mossakowski, K. N., & Zhang, W. (2014). Does social support buffer the stress of discrimination and reduce psychological distress among Asian Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 77(3), 273–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272514534271.
Pang, Y. C. (2015). The relationship between perceived discrimination, economic pressure, depressive symptoms, and educational attainment of ethnic minority emerging adults: The moderating role of school connectedness during adolescence. Doctoral dissertation Retrieved from http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5501&context=etd.
Peng, W., Li, D., Li, D., Jia, J., Wang, Y., & Sun, W. (2019). School disconnectedness and adolescent internet addiction: Mediation by self-esteem and moderation by emotional intelligence. Computers in Human Behavior, 98, 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.011.
Preacher, K. J., & Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16(2), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658.
Rogers-Sirin, L., Sirin, S. R., & Gupta, T. (2016). Discrimination-related stress and behavioral engagement: The moderating effect of positive school relationships. Education and Youth Today, 20, 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1537-466120160000020001.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. Basic Books.
Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., & Przybylski, A. (2006). The motivational pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach. Motivation Emotion, 30(4), 344–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9051-8.
Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 921–948. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035754.
Umberson, D., Crosnoe, R., & Reczek, C. (2010). Social relationships and health behavior across the life course. Annual Review of Sociology, 36(1), 139–157. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120011.
Van Rooij, A. J., Ferguson, C. J., Colder Carras, M., Kardefelt-Winther, D., Shi, J., Aarseth, E., Bean, A. M., Bergmark, K. H., Brus, A., Coulson, M., Deleuze, J., Dullur, P., Dunkels, E., Edman, J., Elson, M., Etchells, P. J., Fiskaali, A., Granic, I., Jansz, J., Karlsen, F., et al. (2018). A weak scientific basis for gaming disorder: Let us err on the side of caution. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.7.2018.19.
Walsh, S. D., Kolobov, T., & Harel-Fisch, Y. (2018). Social capital as a moderator of the relationship between perceived discrimination and alcohol and cannabis use among immigrant and non-immigrant adolescents in Israel. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1556. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01556.
Walsh, S. D., Kolobov, T., & Simanovskaya, O. (2019). What is it about perceived discrimination that can lead immigrant adolescents to alcohol use and delinquency? The mediating role of feelings of alienation. Substance Use & Misuse, 54(1), 65–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2018.1495738.
Wang, S., & Zhang, D. (2020). The impact of perceived social support on students’ pathological internet use: The mediating effect of perceived personal discrimination and moderating effect of emotional intelligence. Computers in Human Behavior, 106, 106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106247.
Wen, Z., & Fan, X. (2015). Monotonicity of effect sizes: Questioning kappa-squared as mediation effect size measure. Psychological Methods, 20(2), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000029.
Yang, T., Chen, I., Choi, S., & Kurtulus, A. (2019). Linking perceived discrimination during adolescence to health during mid-adulthood: Self-esteem and risk-behavior mechanisms. Social Science & Medicine, 232, 434–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.06.012.
Young, K. S. (1998). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 1(3), 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.237.
Zhang, G., Dai, B., & Lei, L. (2013). The development of pathological internet use and its relationship with self-esteem among junior high school students: The moderating role of classmate relationship. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 45(12), 1345–1354. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2013.01345.
Zhu, J., Xie, R., Chen, Y., & Zhang, W. (2019). Relationship between parental rejection and problematic mobile phone use in Chinese university students: Mediating roles of perceived discrimination and school engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 428. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00428.
Zimmerman, M. A., Stoddard, S. A., Eisman, A. B., Caldwell, C. H., Aiyer, S. M., & Miller, A. (2013). Adolescent resilience: Promotive factors that inform prevention. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12042.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments.
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bao, Z., Wang, F. & Jiang, Y. Perceived economic discrimination and problematic internet use among Chinese adolescents: The mediating role of self-esteem and the moderating role of school connectedness. Curr Psychol 42, 4969–4978 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01847-9
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01847-9