Abstract
Quantitative weathering indices are efficient tools in determining the soil development from the underlying rocks. In order to evaluate the effects of climate on the soils developed under an arid to sub-humid climosequence in central Iran, twenty soil-development indices were compared. Twenty-four samples from six pedons were analyzed for routine physico-chemical and geochemical analyses using X-ray fluorescence (XRF). The lowest and highest calculated soil development indices were observed in the arid and sub-humid regions respectively. Among the studied indices, fifteen indices showed similar trends concerning the intensity of weathering. The consistency of such trends reveals the feasibility of using these indices to evaluate basalt weathering rate and soil development in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions. This study demonstrated that, among the evaluated weathering indices, the Weathering Index of Parker (WIP) and mass transfer coefficient (τ) were the most proper indices for predicting basalt weathering intensity. This is due to the fact that these indices use the highly mobile earth elements which are the most sensitive elements in basalt chemical weathering. The calculated indices were subdivided into three subgroups including the ratios of mobile/immobile, mobile/mobile and immobile/mobile elements based on the elements used in their calculation. The state of soil evolution was more accurately predicted compared to the other subgroups using the mobile/immobile subgroup of indices. Overall, the weathering indices calculated using the mobile elements are better indicators of weathering intensity, soil formation and the exogenous processes across the arid to sub-humid climosequence.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- CF:
-
Coarse fragment
- SMR:
-
Soil moisture regime
- STR:
-
Soil temperature regime
- MAP:
-
Mean annual precipitation
- MAT:
-
Mean annual temperature
- BD:
-
Bulk density
- SOC:
-
Soil organic carbon
- CCE:
-
Calcium carbonate equivalent
- CEC:
-
Cation exchange capacity
References
Anderson SP, Bales RC, Duffy CJ (2008) Critical Zone Observatories: Building a network to advance interdisciplinary study of Earth surface processes. Mineralogical Magazine 72(1): 7–10. https://doi.org/10.1180/minmag.2008.072.1.7
Banwart SA, Chorover J, Gaillardet J, et al. (2013) Sustaining Earth’s Critical Zone Basic Science and Interdisciplinary Solutions for Global Challenges. University of Sheffield, United Kingdom University of Sheffield. p 48.
Birkeland PW (1999) Soils and Geomorphology. New York: Oxford University Press.
Brantley SL, Scatena, M, Balogh-Brunstad FN, et al. (2011) Twelve testable hypotheses on the geobiology of weathering. Twelve testable hypotheses on the geobiology of weathering 9(2):140–165.
Braun JJ, Ngoupayou JR, Viers N, et al. (2005) Present weathering rates in a humid tropical watershed: Nsimi, South Cameroon. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 69(2): 357–387.
Caner L, Radtke LM, Vignol-Lelarge, ML, et al. (2014) Basalt and rhyo-dacite weathering and soil clay formation under subtropical climate in southern Brazil. Geoderma 235: 100–112.
Caspari T, Bäumler R, Norbu C, et al. (2006) Geochemical investigation of soils developed in different lithologies in Bhutan, Eastern Himalayas. Geoderma 136(1–2): 436–458.
Chadwick OA, Derry LA, Vitousek PM, et al. (1999) Changing sources of nutrients during four million years of ecosystem development. Nature 397: (491–497).
Chorover J, Amistadi MK, Chadwick OA (2004) Surface charge evolution of mineral-organic complexes during pedogenesis in Hawaiian basalt. Geochimical Cosmochimistry Acta 68(23): 4859–4876.
Darmody RG, Thorn CE, Allen CE (2005) Chemical weathering and boulder mantles, Kärkevagge, Swedish Lapland. Geomorphology 67(1–2): 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.07.011
Dinis PA, Garzanti E, Vermeesch P, et al. (2017) Climatic zonation and weathering control on sediment composition (Angola). Chemical Geology 467: 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2017.07.030
Dinis PA, Pinto, MMC, Garzanti E, et al. (2019) Detrital record of the denudation of volcanic islands under sub-tropical climate (Cape Verde). Geochemistry 79: 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2019.02.001
Dinis PA, Garzanti E, Rocha FT, et al. (2020) Weathering indices as climate proxies. A step forward based on Cngo and SW African river muds. Earth-Science Reviews 201: 103039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.103039
Duzgoren-Aydin, NS, Aydin A, Malpas J (2002) Re-assessment of chemical weathering indices: Case study on pyroclastic rocks of Hong Kong. Engineering Geology 63(1–2): 99–119.
Fedo CM, Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1995) Unraveling the Effects of Potassium Metasomatism in Sedimentary Rocks and Paleosols, with Implications for Paleoweathering Conditions and Provenance. Geology 23: 921–924.
Garzanti E, Padoan M, Setti M, et al. (2013) Weathering geochemistry and Sr-Nd isotope fingerprinting of equatorial upper Nile and Congo muds. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 14: 292–316.
Harnois L (1988) The CIW index: A new chemical index of weathering. Sediment. Geology 55(3–4): 319–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(88)90137-6
Haskins D (2006) Chemical and mineralogical weathering indices as applied to a granite saprolite in South Africa. In: Proceedings 10th IAEG international congress. The Geological Society of London.
Jayawardena US, Izawa E (1994a) A new chemical index of weathering for metamorphic silicate rocks in tropical regions: A study from Sri Lanka. Engineering Geology 36: 303–310.
Karimzadeh B (2019) Weathering of basaltic rocks and tuffs and their relation to soil organic carbon and inorganic carbon content. MSc. Thesis, University of Tehran. (In Persian)
Mahmoodi S, Heidari A, Masihabadi M et al. (2007) Soil-landscape relationship as indicated by micromorphological data on selected soils from Karaj Basin, Iran. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology 9: 153–164.
Munroe JS, Farrugia G, Ryan PC (2007) Parent material and chemical weathering in alpine soils on Mt. Mansfield, Vermont, USA. Catena 70(1): 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2006.07.003
Nanzyo M, Yamasaki S, Honna T, et al. (2007) Changes in element concentrations during Andosol formation on tephra in Japan. European Journal of Soil Science 58(2): 465–477. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2007.00893.x
Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1984) Prediction of some weathering trends of plutonic and volcanic rocks based on thermodynamic and kinetic considerations. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 48(7): 1523–1534. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(84)90408-3
Nosratipoor S, Nael M, Sheklabadi M, et al. (2015) The effect of parent materials and soil evolution on the content and depth distribution of selected heavy metals in soils of Kabudarahang region, Hamedan. Journal of Water and Soil Conservtion 22(2): 1–20. (In Farsi)
Pansu M, Gautheyrou J (2006) Handbook of Soil Analysis: Mineralogical, Organic and Inorganic Methods. Springer, Berlin.
Parker A (1970) An index of weathering for silicate rocks. Geology Magazine 107: 501–504.
Patino LC, Velbel MA, Price JR, et al. (2005) Element redistribution during weathering of volcanic rocks in sedentary landscapes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. Supplement 69(10): A683.
Price JR, Rice KC, Szymanski D (2013) Mass-balance modeling of mineral weathering rates and CO2 consumption in the forested Hauver Branch watershed, Catoctin Mountain, Maryland, USA. Earth Surface Processes Landforms 30: 859–875.
Price JR, Velbel MA (2003) Chemical weathering indices applied to weathering profiles developed on heterogeneous felsic metamorphic parent rocks. Chemical Geology 202(3–4): 397–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2002.11.001
Rasmussen C, Dahlgren RA, Southard RJ (2010) Basalt weathering and pedogenesis across an environmental gradient in the southern Cascade Range, California, USA. Geoderma 154(3–4): 473–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.05.019
Rocha-Filho P, Antuenes FS, Falcao MFG (1985) Quantitative influence of the weathering upon the mechanical properties of a young gneiss residual soil. In: Proceedings of first international conference on geomechanics in tropical lateritic and saprolitic soils, Vol 1., Brasilia. pp 281–294.
Ruxton BP (1968) Measures of the degree of chemical weathering of rocks. Journal of Geology 76: 518–527.
Sahandi MR, Soheili M (2005) Geological map of Iran: scale 1:1000000. Tehran, Iran: Geological Survey & Mineral Explorations of Iran (GSI).
Souri B, Watanabe M, Sakagami K (2006) Contribution of Parker and Product indexes to evaluate weathering condition of Yellow Brown Forest soils in Japan. Geoderma 130(3–4): 346–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.02.007
USDA-NRCS (2012a) Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils. Version 3.0. Lincoln, NB.: National Soil Survey Center.
USDA-NRCS (2012b) jNSM: Java Newhall Simulation Model.Version 1.6.0. User guide-part 1. Lincoln, NB.: National Soil Survey Center.
Vitousek PM, Mooney HA, Lubchenco J, et al. (1997) Human domination of earth’s ecosystems. Science 277: 494–499.
White AF, Blum AE (1995) Effects of climate on chemical weathering in watersheds. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 59(9): 1729–1747.
White AF, Buss HL (2014) Natural Weathering Rates of Silicate Minerals. In: Drever J.I. (ed.), Treatise on Geochemistry: Surface and Ground Water, Weathering and Soils. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Acknowledgement
We sincerely appreciate College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran for financial support of the study (Grant No. 7104017/6/18).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Heidari, A., Raheb, A. Geochemical indices of soil development on basalt rocks in arid to sub-humid climosequence of Central Iran. J. Mt. Sci. 17, 1652–1669 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5862-4
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5862-4