Abstract
With the prompt slewing capability of the X-ray and UV-optical telescopes onboard the Swift mission and with the gamma-ray large area telescope onboard the Fermi mission, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are now accessible in a full time window and in all electromagnetic wavelengths for the events. Many observational breakthroughs have been made in recent years. I present here a brief review of some observational breakthroughs with the two missions, focusing on how these breakthroughs have revolutionized our understanding of the nature of this phenomenon and puzzles as well as challenges of confronting the conventional models with data.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Gehrels N, Chincarini G, Giommi P, et al. The Swift gamma-ray burst mission. Astrophys J, 2004, 611: 1005–1020
Band D L, Axelsson M, Baldini L, et al. Prospects for GRB Science with the Fermi Large Area Telescope. Astrophys J, 2009, 701: 1673–1694
Meszaros P. Gamma-ray bursts. Rep Prog Phys, 2006, 69: 2259–2321
Woosley S E, Bloom J S. The Supernova gamma-ray burst connection. Ann Rev Astron Astrophys, 2006, 44: 507–556
Zhang B. Gamma-ray bursts in the Swift era. Chin J Astron Astrophys, 2007, 7: 1–50
Nakar E. Short-hard gamma-ray bursts. Phys Rep, 2007, 442: 166–236
Burrows D N, Romano P, Falcone A, et al. Bright X-ray flares in gamma-ray burst afterglows. Science, 2005, 309: 1833–1835
Zhang B, Fan Y Z, Dyks J, et al. Physical processes shaping gamma-ray burst X-ray afterglow light curves: Theoretical implications from the Swift X-ray telescope observations. Astrophys J, 2006, 642: 354–370
Nousek J A, Kouveliotou C, Grupe D, et al. Evidence for a canonical gamma-ray burst afterglow light curve in the Swift XRT data. Astrophys J, 2006, 642: 389–400
Tagliaferri G, Goad M, Chincarini G, et al. An unexpectedly rapid decline in the X-ray afterglow emission of long gamma-ray bursts. Nature, 2005, 436: 985–988
Zhang B B, Liang E W, Zhang B. A comprehensive analysis of Swift XRT data. I. Apparent spectral evolution of gamma-ray burst X-ray tails. Astrophys J, 2007, 666: 1002–1011
Butler N R, Kocevski D. X-ray hardness variations as an internal/external shock diagnostic. Astrophys J, 2007, 668: 400–408
O’Brien P T, Willingale R, Osborne J, et al. The early X-ray emission from GRBs. Astrophys J, 2006, 647: 1213–1237
Liang E W, Lv H J, Zhang B B, et al. A comprehensive analysis of Swift/XRT Data: IV. Single power-law decaying XRT lightcurves and implications for the unified origin of the X-rays. Astrophys J, 2009, 707: 328–342
Fenimore E E, Madras C D, Nayakshin S. Expanding relativistic shells and gamma-ray burst temporal structure. Astrophys J, 1996, 473: 998–1012
Kumar P, Panaitescu A. Afterglow emission from naked gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2000, 541: L51–L54
Liang E W, Zhang B, O’Brien P T, et al. Testing the curvature effect and internal origin of gamma-ray burst prompt emissions and X-ray flares with Swift data. Astrophys J, 2006, 646: 351–357
Zhang B B, Zhang B, Liang E W, et al. Curvature effect of a non-power-law spectrum and spectral evolution of GRB X-ray tails. Astrophys J, 2009, 690: L10–L13
Qin Y P. The softening phenomenon due to the curvature effect: In the case of an extremely short intrinsic emission. Astrophys J, 2009, 691: 811–822
Pe’er A, Meszaros P, Rees M J. Radiation from an expanding cocoon as an explanation of the steep decay observed in GRB early afterglow light curves. Astrophys J, 2006, 652: 482–489
Shao L, Dai Z G. Behavior of X-ray dust scattering and implications for X-ray afterglows of gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2007, 660: 1319–1325
Giannios D, Spitkovsky A. Signatures of a thermal component in shock-accelerated electrons in GRBs. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2009, 400: 330–336
Liang E W, Zhang B B, Zhang B. A comprehensive analysis of Swift XRT data. II. Diverse physical origins of the shallow decay segment. Astrophys J, 2007, 670: 565–583
Dai Z G, Lu T. Gamma-ray bursts and afterglows from rotating strange stars and neutron stars. Phys Rev Lett, 1998, 81: 4301–4304
Zhang B, Meszaros P. Gamma-ray burst afterglow with continuous energy injection: Signature of a highly magnetized millisecond pulsar. Astrophys J, 2001, 552: L35–L38
Granot J, Kumar P. Distribution of gamma-ray burst ejecta energy with Lorentz factor. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2006, 366: L13–L16
Willingale R, O’Brien P T, Osborne J P, et al. Testing the standard fireball model of gamma-ray bursts using late X-ray afterglows measured by Swift. Astrophys J, 2007, 662: 1093–1110
Troja E, Cusumano G, O’Brien P T, et al. Swift observations of GRB 070110: An extraordinary X-ray afterglow powered by the central engine. Astrophys J, 2007, 665: 599–607
Panaitescu A, Meszaros P, Burrows D, et al. Evidence for chromatic X-ray light-curve breaks in Swift gamma-ray burst afterglows and their theoretical implications. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2006, 369: 2059–2064
Fan Y, Piran T. Gamma-ray burst efficiency and possible physical processes shaping the early afterglow. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2006, 369: 197–206
Burrows D N, Racusin J. Swift X-ray afterglows: Where are the X-ray jet breaks? Nuovo Cimento B Serie, 2006, 121: 1273–1287
Dai X, Halpern J P, Morgan N D, et al. Optical and X-ray observations of GRB 060526: A complex afterglow consistent with an achromatic jet break. Astrophys J, 2007, 658: 509–513
Liang E W, Racusin J L, Zhang B, et al. A Comprehensive analysis of Swift XRT data. III. Jet break candidates in X-ray and optical afterglow light curves. Astrophys J, 2008, 675: 528–552
Dai X, Garnavich P M, Prieto J L, et al. Finding optical jet breaks for Swift-era GRBs with the LBT. Astrophys J, 2008, 682: L77–L80
Racusin J L, Liang E W, Burrows D N, et al. Jet breaks and energetics of Swift gamma-ray burst X-ray afterglows. Astrophys J, 2009, 698: 43–74
Dai Z G, Lu T. The afterglow of GRB 990123 and a dense medium. Astrophys J, 1999, 519: L155–L158
Wei D M, Lu T. Can the jet steepen the light curves of gamma-ray burst afterglows? Astrophys J, 2000, 541: 203–206
Wei D M, Lu T. Can all breaks in gamma-ray burst afterglows be explained by jet effects? Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2002, 332: 994–998
Wei D M, Lu T. Are some breaks in GRB afterglows caused by their spectra? Astron Astrophys, 2002, 381: 731–735
Sari R, Piran T. Predictions for the very early afterglow and the optical flash. Astrophys J, 1999, 520: 641–649
Molinari E, Vergani S D, Malesani D, et al. REM observations of GRB 060418 and GRB 060607A: The onset of the afterglow and the initial fireball Lorentz factor determination. Astron Astrophys, 2007, 469: L13–L16
Yamazaki R. Prior emission model for X-ray plateau phase of gamma-ray burst afterglows. Astrophys J, 2009, 690: L118–L121
Chincarini G, Moretti A, Romano P, et al. The first survey of X-ray flares from gamma-ray bursts observed by Swift: Temporal properties and morphology. Astrophys J, 2007, 671: 1903–1920
Falcone A D, Morris D, Racusin J, et al. The first survey of X-ray flares from gamma-ray bursts observed by Swift: Spectral properties and energetics. Astrophys J, 2007, 671: 1921–1938
Kocevski D, Butler N, Bloom J S. Pulse width evolution of late-time X-ray flares in gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2007, 667: 1024–1032
Ioka K, Kobayashi S, Zhang B. Variabilities of gamma-ray burst afterglows: Long-acting engine, anisotropic jet, or many fluctuating regions? Astrophys J, 2005, 631: 429–434
Nakar E, Piran T. Modeling fluctuations in gamma-ray burst afterglow light curves. Astrophys J, 2003, 598: 400–410
Fan Y Z, Wei D M. Late internal-shock model for bright X-ray flares in gamma-ray burst afterglows and GRB 011121. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2005, 364: L42–L46
King A, O’Brien P T, Goad M R, et al. Gamma-ray bursts: Restarting the engine. Astrophys J, 2005, 630: L113–L115
Dai Z G, Wang X Y, Wu X F, et al. X-ray flares from postmerger millisecond pulsars. Science, 2006, 311: 1127–1129
Perna R, Armitage P J, Zhang B. Flares in long and short gamma-ray bursts: A common origin in a hyperaccreting accretion disk. Astrophys J, 2006, 636: L29–L32
Proga D, Zhang B. The late time evolution of gamma-ray bursts: Ending hyperaccretion and producing flares. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2006, 370: L61–L65
Lei W H, Wang D X, Zou Y C, et al. Hyperaccretion after the Blandford-Znajek process: A new model for GRBs with X-ray flares observed in early afterglows. Chin J Astron Astrophys, 2008, 8: 404–410
Liu T, Gu W M, Xue L, et al. Constraints on the mass accretion rate of neutrino-cooled disks in gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2008, 676: 545–548
Xu R, Liang E. X-ray flares of gamma-ray bursts: Quakes of solid quark stars? Sci China Ser G-Phys Mech Astron, 2009, 52: 315–320
Colgate S A. Early gamma rays from supernovae. Astrophys J, 1974, 187: 333–336
Woosley S E. Gamma-ray bursts from stellar mass accretion disks around black holes. Astrophys J, 1993, 405: 273–277
Fruchter A S, Levan A J, Strolger L, et al. Long gamma-ray bursts and core-collapse supernovae have different environments. Nature, 2006, 441: 463–468
Paczynski B. Gamma-ray bursters at cosmological distances. Astrophys J, 1986, 308: L43–L46
Eichler D, Livio M, Piran T, et al. Nucleosynthesis, neutrino bursts and gamma-rays from coalescing neutron stars. Nature, 1989, 340: 126–128
Narayan R, Paczynski B, Piran T. Gamma-ray bursts as the death throes of massive binary stars. Astrophys J, 1992, 395: L83–L86
Zhang B, Zhang B B, Virgili F J, et al. Discerning the physical origins of cosmological gamma-ray bursts based on multiple observational criteria: The cases of z=6.7 GRB 080913, z=8.2 GRB 090423, and some short/hard GRBs. Astrophy J, 2009, 703: 1696–1724
Zhang B, Zhang B B, Liang E W, et al. Making a short gamma-ray burst from a long one: Implications for the nature of GRB 060614. Astrophys J, 2007, 655: L25–L28
Perley D A, Metzger B D, Granot J, et al. GRB 080503: Implications of a naked short gamma-ray burst dominated by extended emission. Astrophys J, 2009, 696: 1871–1885
Gal-Yam A, Fox D B, Price P A, et al. A novel explosive process is required for the gamma-ray burst GRB 060614. Nature, 2006, 444: 1053–1055
Fynbo J P U, Watson D, Thöne C C, et al. No supernovae associated with two long-duration gamma-ray bursts. Nature, 2006, 444: 1047–1049
Della Valle M, Chincarini G, Panagia N, et al. An enigmatic long-lasting gamma-ray burst not accompanied by a bright supernova. Nature, 2006, 444: 1050–1052
Xu D, Starling R L C, Fynbo J P U, et al. In search of progenitors for supernovaless gamma-ray bursts 060505 and 060614: Re-examination of their afterglows. Astrophys J, 2009, 696: 971–979
Lu Y, Huang Y F, Zhang S N. A tidal disruption model for the gamma-ray burst of GRB 060614. Astrophys J, 2008, 684: 1330–1335
Rosswog S. Fallback accretion in the aftermath of a compact binary merger. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2007, 376: L48–L51
Metzger B D, Quataert E, Thompson T A. Short-duration gamma-ray bursts with extended emission from protomagnetar spin-down. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2008, 385: 1455–1460
Gao W H, Fan Y Z. Short-living Supermassive magnetar model for the early x-ray flares following short GRBs. Chin J Astron Astrophys, 2006, 6: 513–516
Kouveliotou C, Meegan C A, Fishman G J, et al. Identification of two classes of gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 1993, 413: L101–L104
Bloom J S, Butler N R, Perley D A. Gamma-ray bursts, classified physically. Am Inst Phys Conf Ser, 2008: 11–15
Zhang B. Astrophysics: A burst of new ideas. Nature, 2006, 444: 1010–1011
Yi T, Liang E, Qin Y, et al. On the spectral lags of the short gamma-ray bursts. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2006, 367: 1751–1756
Gehrels N, Norris J P, Barthelmy S D, et al. A new gamma-ray burst classification scheme from GRB060614. Nature, 2006, 444: 1044–1046
Greiner J, Krühler T, Fynbo J P U, et al. GRB 080913 at Redshift 6.7. Astrophys J, 2009, 693: 1610–1620
Lin L, Liang E W, Zhang S N. GRB 090423: Marking the death of a massive star at z=8.2. 2009, preprint (arXiv0906.3057)
Racusin J L, Karpov S V, Sokolowski M, et al. Broadband observations of the naked-eye gamma-ray burst GRB080319B. Nature, 2008, 455: 183–188
Groot P J, Galama T J, van Paradijs J, et al. A search for optical afterglow from GRB 970828. Astrophys J, 1998, 493: L27–L30
Roming P W A, Schady P, Fox D B, et al. Very early optical afterglows of gamma-ray bursts: Evidence for relative paucity of detection. Astrophys J, 2006, 652: 1416–1422
De Pasquale M, Piro L, Perna R, et al. A comparative study of the x-ray afterglow properties of optically bright and dark gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2003, 592: 1018–1024
Lin Y Q. The early x-ray afterglows of optically bright and dark gamma-ray bursts. Chin J Astron Astrophys, 2006, 6: 555–560
Jakobsson P, Hjorth J, Fynbo J P U, et al. Swift identification of dark gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2004, 617: L21–L24
Rol E, Wijers R, Kouveliotou C, et al. How special are dark gamma-ray bursts: A diagnostic tool. Astrophys J, 2005, 624: 868–879
Liang E, Zhang B. Identification of two categories of optically bright gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2006, 638: L67–L70
van der Horst A J, Kouveliotou C, Gehrels N, et al. Optical classification of gamma-ray bursts in the Swift era. Astrophys J, 2009, 699: 1087–1091
Chen H W, Perley D A, Pollack L K, et al. High-redshift starbursting dwarf galaxies revealed by gamma-ray burst afterglows. Astrophys J, 2009, 691: 152–174
Elíasdóttir Á, Fynbo J, Hjorth J, et al. Dust extinction in high-z galaxies with gamma-ray burst afterglow spectroscopy: The 2175 a feature at z = 2.45. Astrophys J, 2009, 697: 1725–1740
Prochaska J X, Sheffer Y, Perley D A, et al. The first positive detection of molecular gas in a GRB host galaxy. Astrophys J, 2009, 691: L27–L32
Galama T J, Vreeswijk P M, van Paradijs J, et al. An unusual supernova in the error box of the gamma-ray burst of 25 April 1998. Nature, 1998, 395: 670–672
Campana S, Mangano V, Blustin A J, et al. The association of GRB 060218 with a supernova and the evolution of the shock wave. Nature, 2006, 442: 1008–1010
Liang E W, Zhang B, Virgili F, et al. Low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts as a unique population: Luminosity function, local rate, and beaming factor. Astrophys J, 2007, 662: 1111–1118
Soderberg A M, Kulkarni S R, Berger E, et al. The sub-energetic gamma-ray burst GRB 031203 as a cosmic analogue to the nearby GRB 980425. Nature, 2004, 430: 648–650
Soderberg A M, Berger E, Page K L, et al. An extremely luminous X-ray outburst at the birth of a supernova. Nature, 2008, 453: 469–474
Li L X. The X-ray transient 080109 in NGC 2770: An X-ray flash associated with a normal core-collapse supernova. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2008, 388: 603–610
Mazzali P A, Valenti S, Della Valle M, et al. The metamorphosis of supernova SN 2008D/XRF 080109: A link between supernovae and GRBs/hypernovae. Science, 2008, 321: 1185
Xu D, Watson D, Fynbo J, et al. Mildly relativistic X-ray transient 080109 and SN 2008D: Towards a continuum from energetic GRB/XRF to ordinary Ibc SN. In: 37th COSPAR Scientific Assembly: n/a 1, 2008. 3512
Guetta D, Perna R, Stella L, et al. Are all gamma-ray bursts like GRB 980425, GRB 030329, and GRB 031203? Astrophys J, 2004, 615: L73–L76
Imerito A, Coward D, Burman R, et al. Probing the low-luminosity gamma-ray burst population with new generation satellite detectors. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2008, 391: 405–410
Dai X. Intensity distribution and luminosity function of the Swift gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2009, 697: L68–L71
Kistler M D, Yüksel H, Beacom J F, et al. An unexpectedly Swift rise in the gamma-ray burst rate. Astrophys J, 2008, 673: L119–L122
Chapman R, Tanvir N R, Priddey R S, et al. How common are long gamma-ray bursts in the local Universe? Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2007, 382: L21–L25
Virgili F J, Liang E W, Zhang B. Low-luminosity gamma-ray bursts as a distinct GRB population: A firmer case from multiple criteria constraints. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2009, 392: 91–103
Lamb D Q, Reichart D E. Gamma-ray bursts as a probe of the very high redshift universe. Astrophys J, 2000, 536: 1–18
Bromm V, Loeb A. The expected redshift distribution of gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2002, 575: 111–116
Gou L J, Fox D B, Meszaros P. Modeling GRB 050904: Autopsy of a massive stellar explosion at z=6.29. Astrophys J, 2007, 668: 1083–1102
Kistler M D, Yuksel H, Beacom J F, et al. The star formation rate in the reionization era as indicated by gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2009, 705: L104–L108
Tanvir N R, Fox D B, Levan A J, et al. A γ-ray burst of a redshift of z∼8.2. Nature, 2009, 461: 1254–1257
Akerlof C W, Swan H F. An estimation of the gamma-ray burst afterglow apparent optical brightness distribution function. Astrophys J, 2007, 671: 1868–1876
Chincarini G, Fiore F, Della Valle M, et al. Gamma-ray bursts: Learning about the birth of black holes and opening new frontiers for cosmology. The Messenger, 2006, 123: 54
Dai Z G, Liang E W, Xu D. Constraining ΩM and dark energy with gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2004, 612: L101–L104
Ghirlanda G, Ghisellini G, Lazzati D, et al. Gamma-ray bursts: New rulers to measure the universe. Astrophys J, 2004, 613: L13–L16
Friedman A S, Bloom J S. Toward a more standardized candle using gamma-ray burst energetics and spectra. Astrophys J, 2005, 627: 1–25
Liang E, Zhang B. Model-independent multivariable gamma-ray burst luminosity indicator and its possible cosmological implications. Astrophys J, 2005, 633: 611–623
Ghirlanda G, Ghisellini G, Lazzati D. The collimation-corrected gamma-ray burst energies correlate with the peak energy of their vfv spectrum. Astrophys J, 2004, 616: 331–338
Ghirlanda G, Ghisellini G, Firmani C, et al. Cosmological constraints with GRBs: Homogeneous medium vs. wind density profile. Astron Astrophys, 2006, 452: 839–844
Liang E, Zhang B. Calibration of gamma-ray burst luminosity indicators. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2006, 369: L37–L41
Liang N, Xiao W K, Liu Y, et al. A cosmology-independent calibration of gamma-ray burst luminosity relations and the hubble diagram. Astrophys J, 2008, 685: 354–360
Li L X. Star formation history up to z = 7.4: Implications for gamma-ray bursts and cosmic metallicity evolution. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2008, 388: 1487–1500
Savaglio S. GRBs as cosmological probes—cosmic chemical evolution. New J Phys, 2006, 8: 195
Chen S L, Li A, Wei D M. Dust extinction of gamma-ray burst host galaxies: Identification of two classes? Astrophys J, 2006, 647: L13–L16
Li A, Liang S L, Kann D A, et al. On dust extinction of gamma-ray burst host galaxies. Astrophys J, 2008, 685: 1046–1051
Li Y, Li A, Wei D M. Determining the dust extinction of gamma-ray burst host galaxies: A direct method based on optical and x-ray photometry. Astrophys J, 2008, 678: 1136–1141
Chen H W. Probing the circumstellar medium of GRB afterglows through absorption-line observations. Roy Soc London Philosoph Trans Ser A, 2007, 365: 1247–1253
Prochaska J X, Chen H W, Dessauges-Zavadsky M, et al. Probing the interstellar medium near star-forming regions with gamma-ray burst afterglow spectroscopy: Gas, metals, and dust. Astrophys J, 2007, 666: 267–280
Totani T, Kawai N, Kosugi G, et al. Implications for cosmic reionization from the optical afterglow spectrum of the gamma-ray burst 050904 at z = 6.3. Pub Astron Soc Jpn, 2006, 58: 485–498
Vreeswijk P M, Ellison S L, Ledoux C, et al. The host of GRB 030323 at z=3.372: A very high column density DLA system with a low metallicity. Astron Astrophys, 2004, 419: 927–940
Jakobsson P, Hjorth J, Fynbo J P U, et al. The line-of-sight towards GRB 030429 at z =2.66: Probing the matter at stellar, galactic and intergalactic scales. Astron Astrophys, 2004, 427: 785–794
Prochter G E, Prochaska J X, Chen H W, et al. On the incidence of strong Mg II absorbers along gamma-ray burst sight lines. Astrophys J, 2006, 648: L93–L96
Fynbo J P U, Starling R L C, Ledoux C, et al. Probing cosmic chemical evolution with gamma-ray bursts: GRB 060206 at z = 4.048. Astron Astrophys, 2006, 451: L47–L50
Schneid E J, Bertsch D L, Fichtel C E, et al. EGRET detection of high energy gamma rays from the gamma-ray burst of 3 May 1991. Astron Astrophys, 1992, 255: L13–L16
Sommer M, Bertsch D L, Dingus B L, et al. High-energy gamma rays from the intense 1993 January 31 gamma-ray burst. Astrophys J, 1994, 422: L63–L66
Hurley K, Dingus B L, Mukherjee R, et al. Detection of a gamma-ray burst of very long duration and very high energy. Nature, 1994, 372: 652–654
Schneid E J, Bertsch D L, Dingus B L, et al. EGRET measurements of energetic gamma rays from the gamma-ray bursts of 1992 June 22 and 1994 March 1. Astrophys J, 1995, 453: 95
González M M, Dingus B L, Kaneko Y, et al. A gamma-ray burst with a high-energy spectral component inconsistent with the synchrotron shock model. Nature, 2003, 424: 749–751
Abdo A A, Ackermann M, Arimoto M, et al. Fermi observations of high-energy gamma-ray emission from GRB 080916C. Science, 2009, 323: 1688
Dingus B L. Observations of the highest energy gamma rays from gamma-ray bursts. In: Gamma-Ray Burst and Afterglow Astronomy 2001: A Workshop Celebrating the First Year of the HETE Mission: April 1, 2003. 240–243
Giuliani A, Mereghetti S, Fornari F, et al. AGILE detection of delayed gamma-ray emission from GRB 080514B. Astron Astrophys, 2008, 491: L25–L28
Dermer C D, Atoyan A. Neutral beam model for the anomalous gamma-ray emission component in GRB 941017. Astron Astrophys, 2004, 418: L5–L8
Meszaros P, Rees M J. Delayed GeV Emission from cosmological gamma-ray bursts — Impact of a relativistic wind on external matter. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 1994, 269: L41–L45
Zhang B, Meszaros P. High-energy spectral components in gamma-ray burst afterglows. Astrophys J, 2001, 559: 110–122
Wang X Y, Dai Z G, Lu T. Prompt high-energy gamma-ray emission from the synchrotron self-compton process in the reverse shocks of gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2001, 546: L33–L37
Fan Y, Piran T. Sub-GeV flashes in gamma-ray burst afterglows as probes of underlying bright far-ultraviolet flares. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2006, 370: L24–L28
Wang X Y, Meszaros P. GeV photons from the upscattering of supernova shock breakout X-rays by an outside gamma-ray burst jet. Astrophys J, 2006, 643: L95–L98
Galli A, Guetta D. Gamma-ray burst high energy emission from internal shocks. Astron Astrophys, 2008, 480: 5–13
Chen L, Liu D B, Huang Y F, et al. Does the prompt gamma-ray emission of gamma-ray bursts arise from resonant inverse compton scattering? Astrophys J, 2008, 680: 539–544
Wang X Y, Li Z, Dai Z G, et al. GRB 080916C: On the radiation origin of the prompt emission from keV/MeV To GeV. Astrophys J, 2009, 698: L98–L102
Toma K, Wu X F, Meszaros P. An up-scattered cocoon emission model of gamma-ray burst high-energy lags. 2009, preprint (arXiv0905.1697)
Li Z. Prompt GeV emission from residual collisions in GRB Outflows: Evidence from fermi observations of GRB 080916c, vol. 0810, 2008
Li Z, Waxman E. Prompt optical emission from residual collisions in gamma-ray burst outflows. Astrophys J, 2008, 674: L65–L68
Dai Z G, Lu T. Spectrum and duration of delayed MeV-GeV emission of gamma-ray bursts in cosmic background radiation fields. Astrophys J, 2002, 580: 1013–1016
Razzaque S, Meszaros P, Zhang B. GeV and higher energy photon interactions in gamma-ray burst fireballs and surroundings. Astrophys J, 2004, 613: 1072–1078
Murase K, Zhang B, Takahashi K, et al. Possible effects of pair echoes on gamma-ray burst afterglow emission. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2009, 339: 1825–1832
Cheng L X, Cheng K S. Delayed MeV-GeV gamma-ray photons in gamma-ray bursts: An effect of electromagnetic cascades of very high energy gamma-rays in the infrared/microwave background. Astrophys J, 1996, 459: L79
Plaga R. Detecting intergalactic magnetic fields using time delays in pulses of gamma-rays. Nature, 1995, 374: 430–432
Baring M G, Harding A K. The Escape of high-energy photons from gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 1997, 491: 663
Baring M G. Temporal evolution of pair attenuation signatures in gamma-ray burst spectra. Astrophys J, 2006, 650: 1004–1019
Gupta N, Zhang B. Diagnosing the site of gamma-ray burst prompt emission with spectral cut-off energy. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2008, 384: L11–L15
Wang X Y, Li Z, Meszaros P. GeV-TeV and X-ray flares from gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys J, 2006, 641: L89–L92
Fan Y Z. Interpretation and implication of the non-detection of GeV spectrum excess by Fermi gamma-ray space telescope in most GRBs. Mon Not Roy Astron Soc, 2009, 397: 1539–1548
Zhang B, Pe’er A. Evidence of a non-baryonic composition in GRB 080916C. Astrophys J, 2009, 700: L65–L68
McGlynn S, Foley S, McBreen B, et al. High energy emission and polarisation limits for the INTEGRAL burst GRB 061122. Astron Astrophys, 2009, 499: 465–472
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This work was supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (Grant No. 2009CB824800), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 10873002), Guangxi SHI-BAI-QIAN Project (Grant No. 2007201), the Program for 100 Young and Middle-aged Disciplinary Leaders in Guangxi Higher Education Institutions, and the Research Foundation of Guangxi University (Grant No. M30520).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Liang, E. Gamma-ray bursts in the Swift-Fermi era: Confronting data with theory. Sci. China Phys. Mech. Astron. 53 (Suppl 1), 14–23 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11433-010-0023-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11433-010-0023-3