Abstract
Iron (Fe) is an important element for the terrestrial and marine ecosystems through its biogeochemical cycling on the Earth’s surface. China has a long rice cultivation history, with extensive rice distribution across many types of paddy soils. Paddy soils are the largest anthropogenic wetlands on earth with critical roles in ecosystem functions. The periodic artificial submergence and drainage during paddy soil evolution result in significant changes in soil moisture regime and redox conditions from the natural soils, which facilitate the increase of Fe solubility and mobilization. However, there is a lack of systematic assessment on the magnitude of the migration and loss amount of Fe from paddy soils. In order to quantify the Fe loss and assess the dynamic evolution of Fe in the soils after rice cultivation, seven paddy soil chronosequences derived from different landscapes (bog, plain, terrace) and parent materials (acidic, neutral, calcareous) with cultivation history from 0 to 2,000 yr were studied. Results showed that the rates and trajectories of Fe evolution showed distinct patterns among the studied seven paddy soil chronosequences. However, net losses of Fe from 1 m soil depth occurred at all studied paddy soil chronosequences regardless of the original landscapes and parent materials. Fe in the paddy soils derived from the calcareous lacustrine sediments in the bog area showed a slight accumulation during the initial stage (50 yr) of paddy cultivation, with a loss rate of 0.026 kg m−2 yr−1 during the 50- to 500-yr time period. For the paddy soils developed on the calcareous marine sediments in the plain area, Fe evolution was dominated by the internal movement in soil profiles through coupled reducing-eluviation reactions in the surface horizons and oxidation-illuviation in the subsurface horizons within 1,000 yr of paddy cultivation, with an averaged net loss rate of 0.029 kg m−2 yr−1 during the 1,000- to 2,000-yr time period of rice cultivation. In contrast, Fe in the paddy soils derived from the acidic and neutral parent materials in the plain and terraced upland areas was rapidly lost during the initial stage of paddy cultivation, with a maximum loss rate of 1.106 kg m−2 yr−1, while the Fe loss rate decreased gradually with increasing paddy cultivation age. Soil pH, CaCO3, and organic matter contents of the original soils, the length of time of paddy cultivation, landscape types and positions, and changes in soil moisture regime and redox condition induced by artificial submergence and drainage were the main factors controlling the rates and trajectories of Fe loss during paddy soils evolution. The amount of Fe loss caused by rice cultivation at the national scale was estimated based on the data collected from this study and the literature. The Fe loss fluxes of paddy soils in China were about 46.4–195.7 Tg yr−1, and the amounts of Fe losses from paddy fields nationwide were about 5,121.5–9,412.2 Tg. Quantifying Fe loss from paddy fields is important to scientifically assess the impact of paddy cultivation on the Fe biogeochemical cycle.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Boyd P W, Bakker D C E, Chandler C. 2012. A new database to explore the findings from large-scale ocean iron enrichment experiments. Oceanography, 25: 64–71
Brantley S L. 2008. Understanding soil time. Science, 321: 1454–1455
Brinkman R. 1970. Ferrolysis, a hydromorphic soil forming process. Geoderma, 3: 199–206
Chen L M, Zhang G L, Effland W R. 2011. Soil characteristic response times and pedogenic thresholds during the 1000-year evolution of a paddy soil chronosequence. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 75: 1807–1820
Chen L M, Zhang G L, Rossiter D G, Cao Z H. 2015. Magnetic depletion and enhancement in the evolution of paddy and non-paddy soil chronosequences. Eur J Soil Sci, 66: 886–897
Chen L M, Zhang G L. 2011. Soil chronosequences and their significance in the study of pedogenesis (in Chinese). Acta Pedol Sin, 48: 419–428
Chi G Y, Zhu B, Huang B, Chen X, Shi Y. 2021. Spatiotemporal dynamics in soil iron affected by wetland conversion on the Sanjiang Plain. Land Degrad Dev, 32: 4669–4679
China National Rice Research Institute. 1990. Rice Planting Division of China (in Chinese). Hangzhou: Zhejiang Science & Technology Press. 48
Ding T P, Gao J F, Shi G Y, Chen F, Wang C Y, Han D, Luo X R. 2013. The contents and mineral and chemical compositions of suspended particulate materials in the Yangtze River, and their geological and environmental implications (in Chinese). Acta Geol Sin, 87: 634–660
Du Z H, Xiao C D, Li X Y. 2013. A review of the sources and controlling factors of the bioavailability iron (Fe) (in Chinese). Adv Earth Sci, 28: 597–607
Gao Y, Dong G H, Yang X Y, Chen F H. 2020. A review on the spread of prehistoric agriculture from southern China to mainland Southeast Asia. Sci China Earth Sci, 63: 615–625
Giannetta B, Siebecker M G, Zaccone C, Plaza C, Rovira P, Vischetti C, Sparks D L. 2020. Iron(III) fate after complexation with soil organic matter in fine silt and clay fractions: An EXAFS spectroscopic approach. Soil Tillage Res, 200: 104617
Gong Z T. 1986. Origin, evolution and classification of paddy soils in China. Adv Soil Sci, 5: 174–200
Gong Z T, Chen H Z, Yuan D G, Zhao Y G, Wu Y J, Zhang G L. 2007. The temporal and spatial distribution of ancient rice in China and its implications. Chin Sci Bull, 52: 1071–1079
Gong Z T, Huang R J, Zhang G L. 2014. Chinese Soil Geography (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 636
Gong Z T. 1999. Chinese Soil Taxonomy: Theories, Methods and Practices (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 903
Gotoh S, Patrick W H. 1974. Transformation of iron in a waterlogged soil as influenced by redox potential and pH. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 38: 66–71
Han G Z, Zhang G L. 2013. Changes in magnetic properties and their pedogenetic implications for paddy soil chronosequences from different parent materials in South China. Eur J Soil Sci, 64: 435–444
Huang L M, Jia X X, Shao M A, Chen L M, Han G Z, Zhang G L. 2018a. Phases and rates of iron and magnetism changes during paddy soil development on calcareous marine sediment and acid Quaternary red-clay. Sci Rep, 8: 444
Huang L M, Jia X X, Zhang G L, Thompson A, Huang F, Shao M A, Chen L M. 2018b. Variations and controls of iron oxides and isotope compositions during paddy soil evolution over a millennial time scale. Chem Geol, 476: 340–351
Huang L M, Thompson A, Zhang G L, Chen L M, Han G Z, Gong Z T. 2015. The use of chronosequences in studies of paddy soil evolution: A review. Geoderma, 237–238: 199–210
Jansen B, Nierop K G J, Verstraten J M. 2003. Mobility of Fe(II), Fe(III) and Al in acidic forest soils mediated by dissolved organic matter: Influence of solution pH and metal/organic carbon ratios. Geoderma, 113: 323–340
Jickells T D, An Z S, Andersen K K, Baker A R, Bergametti G, Brooks N, Cao J J, Boyd P W, Duce R A, Hunter K A, Kawahata H, Kubilay N, laRoche J, Liss P S, Mahowald N, Prospero J M, Ridgwell A J, Tegen I, Torres R. 2005. Global iron connections between desert dust, ocean biogeochemistry, and climate. Science, 308: 67–71
Kyuma K. 2004. Paddy Soil Science. Japan: Kyoto Univ Press. 280
Lam P J, Bishop J K B. 2008. The continental margin is a key source of iron to the HNLC North Pacific Ocean. Geophys Res Lett, 35: L07608
Lannuzel D, Schoemann V, de Jong J, Tison J L, Chou L. 2007. Distribution and biogeochemical behaviour of iron in the East Antarctic sea ice. Mar Chem, 106: 18–32
Li F B, Li Y Z. 2019. Biogeochemical process of iron and its isotope fractionation mechanism in paddy field system: A review (in Chinese). Ecol Env Sci, 28: 1251–1260
Li Q K. 1992. Paddy Soils of China (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 545
Li X M, Mou S, Chen Y T, Liu T X, Dong J, Li F B. 2019. Microaerobic Fe (II) oxidation coupled to carbon assimilation processes driven by microbes from paddy soil. Sci China Earth Sci, 62: 1719–1729
Li X Y, Ding Y J, Hood E, Raiswell R, Han T D, He X B, Kang S C, Wu Q B, Yu Z B, Mika S, Liu L S, Li Q J. 2019. Dissolved iron supply from Asian glaciers: Local controls and a regional perspective. Glob Biogeochem Cycle, 33: 1223–1237
Liu Q H, Shi X Z, Yu D S, Zhao Y C, Sun W X, Wang H J. 2006. Spatial distribution characteristics of paddy soil organic and inorganic carbon in China (in Chinese). Ecol Env Sci, 15: 659–664
Liu R L, Guo B, Wang M Y, Li W Q, Yang T, Ling H F, Chen T Y. 2020. Isotopic fingerprinting of dissolved iron sources in the deep western Pacific since the late Miocene. Sci China Earth Sci, 63: 1767–1779
Liu Y L, Ge T D, van G K J, Yang Y H, Wang P, Cheng K, Zhu Z K, Wang J K, Li Y, Guggenberger G, Sardans J, Penuelas J, Wu J S, Kuzyakov Y. 2021. Rice paddy soils are a quantitatively important carbon store according to a global synthesis. Commun Earth Environ, 2: 154
Lovley D R, Holmes D E, Nevin K P. 2004. Dissimilatory Fe(III) and Mn (IV) reduction. Adv Microb Physiol, 49: 219–286
Lu Y. 2017. Soil Series of China: Guangdong (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 350
Ma W Z, Zhang M K. 2017. Soil Series of China: Zhejiang (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 357
Martin J H, Fitzwater S E. 1988. Iron deficiency limits phytoplankton growth in the north-east Pacific subarctic. Nature, 331: 341–343
Martin J H. 1990. Glacial-interglacial CO2 change: The Iron Hypothesis. Paleoceanography, 5: 1–13
Misumi K, Lindsay K, Moore J K, Doney S C, Bryan F O, Tsumune D, Yoshida Y. 2014. The iron budget in ocean surface waters in the 20th and 21st centuries: Projections by the Community Earth System Model version 1. Biogeosciences, 11: 33–55
Piao S L, Zhang X P, Chen A P, Liu Q, Lian X, Wang X H, Peng S S, Wu X C. 2019. The impacts of climate extremes on the terrestrial carbon cycle: A review. Sci China Earth Sci, 62: 1551–1563
Ponnamperuma F N. 1972. The chemistry of submerged soils. Adv Agron, 24: 29–96
Poulton S W, Raiswell R. 2002. The low-temperature geochemical cycle of iron: From continental fluxes to marine sediment deposition. Am J Sci, 302: 774–805
Qu C H, Zheng J X, Yang S J, Qian Q F, Yang Y N. 1984. Study on the chemical composition and restrictive factors of suspended solids in control stations of the Yellow River, Yangtze River and Pearl River (in Chinese). Chin Sci Bull, 17: 1063–1066
Rembauville M, Salter I, Dehairs F, Miquel J C, Blain S. 2018. Annual particulate matter and diatom export in a high nutrient, low chlorophyll area of the Southern Ocean. Polar Biol, 41: 25–40
Schoeneberger P J, Wysocki D A, Benham E C. 2012. Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils. 3rd ed. Lincoln: National Soil Survey Center. 300
Schwertmann U. 1985. The effect of pedogenic environments on iron oxide minerals. Adv Soil Sci, 1: 171–200
Song J M, Wang Q D. 2020. A new mechanism of atmospheric CO2 absorption promoted by iron-nitrogen coupling in low-latitude oceans during ice age. Sci China Earth Sci, 63: 167–168
Stucki J W, Goodman B A, Schwertmann U. 1988. Iron in Soils and Clay Minerals. Netherlands: Springer, Dordrecht. 894
Sun S, Pu X M, Zhang Y S. 2009. In vitro iron enrichment experiments in the Prydz Bay, the Southern Ocean: A test of the iron hypothesis. Sci China Ser D-Earth Sci, 52: 1426–1435
Wang T W. 2017. Soil Series of China: Hubei (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 362
Wiederhold J G. 2015. Metal stable isotope signatures as tracers in environmental geochemistry. Environ Sci Technol, 49: 2606–2624
Wu H Y, Song X D, Zhao X R, Zhang G L. 2019. Conversion from upland to paddy field intensifies human impacts on element behavior through regolith. Vadose Zone J, 18: 190062
Wu K N, Li L, Ju B, Chen J. 2019. Soil Series of China: Henan (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 450
Xiong Y, Xu Q, Lu Y C, Liu Y C, Zhu H G. 1980. The Paddy Soil of Tai-Hu Region in China (in Chinese). Shanghai: Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers. 98
Xiong Y. 1986. Soil Atlas of China (in Chinese). Beijing: Map Publishing House. 216
Yang S Y, Li C X. 1999. Characteristic element compositions of the Yangtze and the Yellow River sediments and their geological background (in Chinese). Mar Geol Quat Geol, 19: 21–28
Yu T R. 1959. Studies on the infertile “White Soil” in Tai lake region (in Chinese). Acta Pedol Sin, 7: 41–57
Yu T R. 1985. Physical Chemistry of Paddy Soils. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 217
Zhang F R, Liu L M, Wang X L, Kong X B. 2017. Soil Series of China: Beijing and Tianjing (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 343
Zhang G L, Gong Z T. 1993. Geochemical characteristics of elemental migration in soils under submerged condition (in Chinese). Acta Pedol Sin, 30: 355–365
Zhang G L, Gong Z T. 2003. Pedogenic evolution of paddy soils in different soil landscapes. Geoderma, 115: 15–29
Zhang G L, Gong Z T. 2011. Soil Survey Laboratory Methods (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 254
Zhang G L, Song X D, Wu K N. 2021. A classification scheme for Earth’s critical zones and its application in China. Sci China Earth Sci, 64: 1709–1720
Zhang G L, Zhu Y G, Shao M A. 2019. Understanding sustainability of soil and water resources in a critical zone perspective. Sci China Earth Sci, 62: 1716–1718
Zhang G L. 1993. Element migration and balance in soils with wet cultivation and their pedogenic implications (in Chinese). Doctoral Dissertation. Nanjing: Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences. 1–96
Zhang M K, Ma W Z. 2017. Soil Series of China: Fujian (in Chinese). Beijing: Science Press. 420
Zhang S G, Li X, Yang Y C, Li Y C, Chen J Q, Ding F J. 2019. Adsorption, transformation, and colloid-facilitated transport of nano-zero-valent iron in soils. Environ Pollutant Bioavail, 31: 208–218
Zhang W C, Sun S. 2002. Iron hypothesis and the in situ iron fertilization experiments in the HNLC regions (in Chinese). Adv Earth Sci, 17: 612–615
Zhang X S. 2007. Vegetation and Its Geographical Pattern of China (in Chinese). Beijing: Geological Publishing House. 226
Zheng Y M, Niu Z G, Gong P, Dai Y J, Shangguan W. 2013. Preliminary estimation of the organic carbon pool in China’s wetlands. Chin Sci Bull, 58: 662–670
Acknowledgements
The manuscript was greatly improved by the thoughtful and constructive comments from three anonymous reviewers. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41967001 & 41401238), State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. Y20160001) and Science and Technology Project of Guizhou Province (Grant No. Qian Ke He [2017]1209).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, L., Zhao, D., Han, G. et al. Iron loss of paddy soil in China and its environmental implications. Sci. China Earth Sci. 65, 1277–1291 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-021-9936-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-021-9936-6