Abstract
Purpose
There are specific effects of emissions in high altitude, which lead to a higher contribution of aviation to the problem of climate change than just the emission of CO2 from burning fuels. The exact relevance is subject to scientific debate, but there is a consensus that aircrafts have an impact that is higher than just their contribution due to the direct CO2 emissions. The gap between this scientific knowledge on the one side and the missing of applicable GWP (global warming potential) factors for relevant emissions on the other side are an important shortcoming for life cycle assessment (LCA) or carbon footprint (CF) studies which aim to cover all relevant environmental impacts of the transport services investigated.
Methods
In this paper, the state of the art concerning the accounting for the specific effects of aircraft emissions in LCA and CF studies is discussed. Therefore, the relevant literature was evaluated, and practitioners were asked for the approaches used by them.
Results and discussion
Five major approaches are identified ranging from an RFI (radiative forcing index) factor of 1 (no factor at all) to a factor 2.7 for the total aircraft CO2 emissions. If only emissions in the higher atmosphere are considered, RFI factors between 1 and 8.5 are used or proposed in practice.
Conclusions
For the time being, an RFI of 2 on total aircraft CO2 (or 5.2 for the CO2 emissions in the higher atmosphere if using present models in ecoinvent) is recommended to be used in LCA and CF studies because it is based on the latest scientific publications; this basic literature cannot be misinterpreted. Furthermore, it is also recommended by some political institutions. These factors can be multiplied by the direct CO2 emissions of the aircraft to estimate the total global warming potential.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Notes
References
atmosfair (2008) Der Emissionsrechner. atmosfair, retrieved from: https://www.atmosfair.de/index.php?id=60&L=0
Azar C, Johansson JA (2012) Valuing the non-CO2 climate impacts of aviation. Clim Chang 111:559–579
Bows-Larkin A, Mander SL, Traut MB, Anderson KL, Wood FR (2016) Aviation and climate change–the continuing challenge. In: Encyclopedia of Aerospace Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi: DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470686652.eae1031
Brasseur GP (2008) A report on the way forward - based on the review of research gaps and priorities sponsored by the Environmental Working Group of the U.S. NextGen Joint Planning and Development Office, retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224999220_ACCRI_-_A_Report_on_the_Way_Forward_based_on_the_Review_of_Research_Gaps_and_Priorities
Carbon Trust, DEFRA (2011) PAS 2050:2011: specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services. British Standard, BSi, London, retrieved from: www.bsigroup.com/upload/Standards%20&%20Publications/Energy/PAS2050.pdf
ecoinvent Centre (2010) ecoinvent data v2.2, ecoinvent reports No. 1–25. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Duebendorf, Switzerland, retrieved from: www.ecoinvent.org
ecoinvent Centre (2017) ecoinvent data v3.4, ecoinvent reports No. 1–25. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Zurich, Switzerland, retrieved from: www.ecoinvent.org
Ecoplan / Infras (2014) Externe Effekte des Verkehrs 2010: Monetarisierung von Umwelt-, Unfall- und Gesundheitseffekten. Bundesamt für Raumentwicklung, Bern, Zürich und Altdorf, retrieved from: www.ecoplan.ch
ESU (2018) The ESU database 2018. ESU-services Ltd., Schaffhausen, retrieved from: www.esu-services.ch/data/database/
European Commission (2010) ILCD handbook (International Reference Life Cycle Data System), analysis of existing environmental impact assessment methodologies for use in life cycle assessment. European Commission, DG-JRC, retrieved from: lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/eplca/deliverables/consultation-on-international-reference-life-cycle-data-system-ilcd-handbook
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability (2011) International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) handbook - recommendations for life cycle impact assessment in the European context - based on existing environmental impact assessment models and factors. Luxemburg, retrieved from: lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/assessment/projects
Fahey DW, Lee DS (2016) Aviation and climate change: a scientific perspective. retrieved from: http://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/618290/1/Fahey%20and%20Lee%20CCLR%202016.pdf
Frischknecht R, Jungbluth N, Althaus H-J, Bauer C, Doka G, Dones R, Hellweg S, Hischier R, Humbert S, Margni M, Nemecek T (2007a) Implementation of life cycle impact assessment methods. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf, CH, retrieved from: www.esu-services.ch/data/ecoinvent/
Frischknecht R, Jungbluth N, Althaus H-J, Doka G, Dones R, Heck T, Hellweg S, Hischier R, Nemecek T, Rebitzer G, Spielmann M (2007b) Overview and methodology. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf, CH, retrieved from: www.ecoinvent.org
Frischknecht R, Steiner R, Jungbluth N (2009) The ecological scarcity method - eco-factors 2006: a method for impact assessment in LCA. Federal Office for the Environment FOEN, Zürich und Bern, retrieved from: www.bafu.admin.ch/publikationen/publikation/01031/index.html?lang=en
Frischknecht R, Messmer A, Stolz P, Tuchschmid M (2016) mobitool – Grundlagenbericht Hintergrund, Methodik & Emissionsfaktoren. retrieved from: https://www.mobitool.ch/admin/data/files/marginal_download/file_de/21/544-mobitool-hintergrundbericht-v2.0.pdf?lm=1479747138
Fuglestvedt JS, Shine KP, Berntsen T, Cook J, Lee DS, Stenke A, Skeie RB, Velders GJM, Waitz IA (2010) Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: metrics. Atmos Environ 44(37):4648–4677
Goedkoop M, Spriensma R (2000) The Eco-indicator 99: a damage oriented method for life cycle impact assessment. PRé consultants, Amersfoort, The Netherlands, retrieved from: www.pre.nl/eco-indicator99/
Goedkoop M, Heijungs R, Huijbregts MAJ, De Schryver A, Struijs J, van Zelm R (2009) ReCiPe 2008 - a life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level. First edition. Report I: Characterisation. NL, retrieved from: lcia-recipe.net/
Gössling S, Upham P (2009) Climate change and aviation. Earthscan, retrieved from: books.google.ch/books?id=LIvEZkURpcMC&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77&dq=gwp+and+aviation&source=bl&ots=VDdSFS9kG_&sig=R0xo1nfgcbJpzLpKhFb_JcV-BbM&hl=de&sa=X&ei=_TV4T7W8H-n64QSCkcSsDw&ved=0CFYQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=gwp%20and%20aviation&f=false
Grassl H, Brockhagen D (2007) Climate forcing of aviation emissions in high altitudes and comparison of metrics: an update according to the Fourth Assessment Report, IPCC 2007. IPCC, retrieved from: www.mpimet.mpg.de/fileadmin/download/Grassl_Brockhagen.pdf
Grießhammer R, Hochfeld C (2009) Memorandum product carbon footprint. Öko-Institut, Berlin, retrieved from: www.bmu.de/files/pdfs/allgemein/application/pdf/memorandum_pcf_lang_bf.pdf
Hischier R, Baitz M, Bretz R, Frischknecht R, Jungbluth N, Marheineke T, McKeown P, Oele M, Osset P, Renner I, Skone T, Wessman H, de Beaufort ASH (2001) Guidelines for consistent reporting of exchanges from/to nature within life cycle inventories (LCI). Int J Life Cycle Assess 6(4):192–198
Huijbregts MAJ, Steinmann ZJN, Elshout PMF, Stam G, Verones F, Vieira M, Zijp M, Hollander A, van Zelm R (2017) ReCiPe2016: a harmonised life cycle impact assessment method at midpoint and endpoint level. Int J Life Cycle Assess 22(2):138–147
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2011) Carbon footprint of products
IPCC (2001) Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). IPCC, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, The Edinburgh Building Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge, UK, retrieved from: www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/
IPCC (2007) The IPCC fourth assessment report. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
IPCC (2013) Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, retrieved from: http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/
Jungbluth N (2013) Aviation and climate change: best practice for calculation of the global warming potential. retrieved from: www.esu-services.ch/our-services/pcf/
Knörr W (2008) EcoPassenger: environmental methodology and data. ifeu - Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung Heidelberg GmbH, Heidelberg, retrieved from: info.rejseplanen.dk/files/Diverse/Ecopassenger_Methodology_Report.pdf
Kollmuss A, Crimmins AM (2009) Carbon offsetting & air travel, part 2: non-CO2 emissions calculations. Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm retrieved from: www.co2offsetresearch.org/PDF/SEI_Air_Travel_Emissions_Paper2_June_09.pdf
LC-inventories (2018) Corrections, updates and extensions of ecoinvent data v2.2. BAFU, retrieved from: www.lc-inventories.ch
Lee DS, Fahey DW, Forster PM, Newton PJ, Wit RCN, Lim LL, Owen B, Sausen R (2009) Aviation and global climate change in the 21st century. J Atmosenv in press:1–18, retrieved from: www.tiaca.org/images/tiaca/PDF/IndustryAffairs/2009%20IPCC%20authors%20update.pdf
Lee DS, Pitari G, Grewec V, Gierens K, Penner JE, Petzold A, Prather MJ, Schumann U, Bais A, Berntsen T, Iachetti D, Lim LL, Sausen R (2010) Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: aviation. J Atmosenv 44:4678–4734
Lund MT, Aamaas B, Berntsen T, Bock L, Burkhardt U, Fuglestvedt JS, Shine KP (2017) Emission metrics for quantifying regional climate impacts of aviation. Earth Syst Dyn 8:547–563
Mäder C (2008) Klimawirksamkeit des Flugverkehrs: Aktueller wissenschaftlicher Kenntnisstand über die Effekte des Flugverkehrs. Umweltbundesamt, FG I 2.1 Klimaschutz, Dessau, DE, retrieved from: www.atmosfair.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Medienecke/Downloadmaterial/Wissenschaftliche_Berichte/Umweltbundesamt_Flugverkehr0308.pdf
myclimate (2009) The myclimate flight emission calculator. Myclimate, retrieved from: www.myclimate.org/fileadmin/documents/cms/E_flight_calculator.pdf
Penner JE, Lister DH, Griggs DJ, Dokken DJ, McFarland M (2000) IPCC Special report aviation and the global atomosphere: Summary for Policymakers. A Special Report of IPCC Working Groups I and III. IPCC, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, The Edinburgh Building Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge, UK, retrieved from: www.ipcc.ch/pub/reports.htm
Peters GP, Aamaas B, Lund MT, Solli C, Fuglestvedt JS (2011) Alternative “global warming” metrics in life cycle assessment: a case study with existing transportation data. Environ Sci Technol 45:8633–8641
SimaPro (8.5.3) SimaPro 8.5.3 (2018) LCA software package. PRé Consultants, Amersfoort, NL, retrieved from: www.simapro.ch
Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Alley RB, Berntsen T, Bindoff NL, Chen Z, Chidthaisong A, Gregory JM, Hegerl GC, Heimann M, Hewitson B, Hoskins BJ, Joos F, Jouzel J, Kattsov V, Lohmann U, Matsuno T, Molina M, Nicholls N, Overpeck J, Raga G, Ramaswamy V, Ren J, Rusticucci M, Somerville R, Stocker TF, Whetton P, Wood RA, Wratt D (2007) Technical summary. Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
Spielmann M, Dones R, Bauer C, Tuchschmid M (2007) Life cycle inventories of transport services. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf, CH, retrieved from: www.ecoinvent.org
UBA (2012) Klimawirksamkeit des Flugverkehrs: Aktueller wissenschaftlicher Kenntnisstand über die Effekte des Flugverkehrs. Umweltbundesamt, FG I 2.1 Klimaschutz, Dessau, DE, retrieved from: www.umweltbundesamt.de/klimaschutz/publikationen/klimawirksamkeit_des_flugverkehrs.pdf
WBCSD, WRI (2011) Product life cycle accounting and reporting standard. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, World Resources Institute, The Greenhouse Gas Protocol Inititative
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Mary Ann Curran
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jungbluth, N., Meili, C. Recommendations for calculation of the global warming potential of aviation including the radiative forcing index. Int J Life Cycle Assess 24, 404–411 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-018-1556-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-018-1556-3