Abstract
The decentralized standalone treatment of faecal sludge is a generally cumbersome, energy-intensive, and expensive process. Particle size enlargement, dewatering, and disinfection are the crucial unit operations that contribute to the major portion of the operational expenditure. Therefore, the present study took up the task to investigate and yield a natural alternative to each of the above-delineated unit operations. Crushed seed powders of Moringa, Guilandina bonduc, Nirmali, tamarind, soap nut, nutmeg, jackfruit, and custard apple were experimented as natural coagulants, while a double-stitched cow dung–lined jute tube was utilized as the media for solid-liquid separation. Finally, the powder of Neem and custard apple seed and leaf were considered herbal disinfectants for the separated liquid and solid fractions, respectively. The findings of the physicochemical and biological analyses of the above unit operations were compared with a conventional polymer–based Geotube-driven treatment scheme. The natural alternatives registered some promising outcomes. However, the combined treatment efficiency of 79.32% (mean value of TS, TSS, TDS, COD, and BOD percentage removal) for pollutant removal and disinfection could not exceed the value of 97.98% offered by the conventional method. Further, the financial comparison for processing a 10 KL batch of FS indicates that the conventional scheme is considerably cheaper (USD 7.95) than the herbal alternate (USD 22.1). Therefore, though the present findings depict promising alternatives for sustainable and eco-friendly faecal sludge treatment, the authors advocate conducting further research to address the existing challenges to facilitate their seamless implementation on a field-scale level.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Abidin ZZ, Ismail N, Yunus R, Ahamad IS, Idris A (2011) A preliminary study on Jatropha curcas as coagulant in wastewater treatment. Environ Technol 32(9):971–977. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2010.521955
Akumuntu JB, Wehn U, Mulenga M, Brdjanovic D (2017) Enabling the sustainable faecal sludge management service delivery chain—a case study of dense settlements in Kigali, Rwanda. Int J Hyg Environ Health 220(6):960–973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.05.001
Alim MA, Moniruzzaman M, Hossain MM, Repon MR, Hossain I, Jalil MA (2022) Manufacturing and compatibilization of binary blends of superheated steam treated jute and poly (lactic acid) biocomposites by melt-blending technique. Heliyon 8(8):e09923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09923
APHA (2017) Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 23rd edn. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC
Appiah-Effah E, Duku GA, Dwumfour-Asare B, Manu I, Nyarko KB (2020) Toilet chemical additives and their effect on faecal sludge characteristics. Heliyon 6(9):e04998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04998
Banka N, Lanke M, Roy Choudhury A, Sarkar J, Anandapu SC, Banerjee R (2020) Evaluation of the functionality of GeoTube® based physicochemical faecal sludge treatment: a cursory alternate. International Journal of Plant and Environment 6(2):122–128. https://doi.org/10.18811/ijpen.v6i02.05
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (2021) Comprehensive overview on bio-solids post-treatments [version 1; not peer reviewed]. Gates Open Research 5:29. https://doi.org/10.21955/gatesopenres.1116736.1
Butte G, Niwagaba C, Nordin A (2021) Assessing the microbial risk of faecal sludge use in Ugandan agriculture by comparing field and theoretical model output. Water Res 197:117068. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117068
Camacho FP, Sousa VS, Bergamasco R, Teixeira MR (2017) The use of Moringa oleifera as a natural coagulant in surface water treatment. Chem Eng J 313:226–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.12.031
Chandana N, Rao B (2021) Assessing inter and intra-variation in the characteristics of faecal sludge from Vadgaon Maval, Maharashtra: For better faecal sludge management in India. J Environ Manag 300:113634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113634
Choudhury AR, Ashok KN, Srinivas K, Arutchelvan V, Thota KR, Ravi SN, Dugyala SK, Goutham RM (2018) Black soldier fly larvae, a viable opportunity for entrepreneurship. Acta Scientific Agriculture 2(9):11–20
Dima FAFJ, Li Z, Zhou X, Zhu L (2023) Plant seed–based bio-coagulant development and application for fecal sludge treatment and biogas production improvement. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-03855-0
Dirix D, Rossi F, Hoek H (2021) Faecal sludge management in Toamasina, Madagascar: emptying - transport - treatment. J Environ Manag 281:111808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111808
EM EL, Nour El-Den AA, Elkady MF, Zaatout AA (2021) Comparison of coagulation performance using natural coagulants against traditional ones. Sep Sci Technol 56(10):1779–1787. https://doi.org/10.1080/01496395.2020.1795674
Eyvaz M, Arslan S, Gürbulak E, Yüksel E (2017) Textile materials in liquid filtration practices: current status and perspectives in water and wastewater treatment. Textiles for advanced applications 293-320. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69462
Fester V, Werner R (2023) Optimization of polymer dosing for improved belt press performance in wastewater treatment plants. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108978
Getahun S, Septien S, Mata J, Somorin T, Mabbett I, Buckley C (2020) Drying characteristics of faecal sludge from different on-site sanitation facilities. J Environ Manag 261:110267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110267
Jain M, Upadhyay M, Gupta AK, Ghosal PS (2022) A review on the treatment of septage and faecal sludge management: a special emphasis on constructed wetlands. J Environ Manag 315:115143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115143
Krueger BC, Fowler GD, Templeton MR, Septien S (2021) Faecal sludge pyrolysis: understanding the relationships between organic composition and thermal decomposition. J Environ Manag 298:113456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113456
Kumari K, Singh PK, Kumari S, Singh KM (2020) Dynamics of jute export in India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 9:3769–3774. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.906.446
Mamera M, van Tol JJ, Aghoghovwia MP (2022) Treatment of faecal sludge and sewage effluent by pinewood biochar to reduce wastewater bacteria and inorganic contaminants leaching. Water Res 221:118775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.118775
Mishuk MH, Islam SMT, Alamgir M (2019) Performance study of jute-fabricated filter media for the treatment of faecal sludge-induced wastewater. In: Ghosh S (ed) Waste Management and Resource Efficiency. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7290-1_97
Mishuk MH, Islam SMT, Alamgir M (2020) Comparison of the efficiency of Deebag and jute made bag for faecal sludge management and wastewater treatment. PLoS One 15(11):e0241046. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241046
Mishuk MH, Janee JF, Islam ST, Alamgir M (2022) Assessment of treatment efficiency by non-energy consuming aeration system for faecal sludge management in an emergency human settlement in Bangladesh. Groundwater for. Sustain Dev 19:100807. https://doi.org/10.17632/w6h39xdj6c.1
Molino B, Bufalo G, De Vincenzo A, Ambrosone L (2020) Semiempirical model for assessing dewatering process by flocculation of dredged sludge in an artificial reservoir. Appl Sci 10(9):3051. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10093051
Ngandjui Tchangoue YA, Djumyom Wafo GV, Wanda C, Soh Kengne E, Kengne IM, Kouam Fogue S (2018) Use of Moringa oleifera seed extracts to polish effluents from natural systems treating faecal sludge. Environ Technol 40(15):2018–2026. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2018.1435736
Nishi L, Vieira AS, Vieira MF, Bongiovani M, Camacho FP, Bergamasco R (2012) Hybrid process of coagulation/flocculation with Moringa oleifera followed by ultrafiltration to remove Microcystis sp. cells from water supply. Procedia Engineering 42:865–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.07.479
Oerke D, Kharkar S, Schlegal P (2011) Comparison of open and enclosed belt filter presses and evaluation of automation to improve performance and to be more sustainable. In: Residuals and Biosolids Conference 2011. Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, pp 105–118. https://doi.org/10.2175/193864711802862554
Osei RA, Abagale FK, Konate Y (2022) Exploitation of indigenous bamboo macrophyte species and bamboo biochar for faecal sludge treatment with constructed wetland technology in the Sudano-Sahelian ecological zone. Heliyon 8(12):e12386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12386
Rowe RK (2007) Advances and remaining challenges for geosynthetics in geoenvironmental engineering applications. Geotecnia 110:11–54. https://doi.org/10.14195/2184-8394_110_1
Samal K, Moulick S, Mohapatra BG, Samanta S, Sasidharan S, Prakash B, Sarangi S (2022) Design of faecal sludge treatment plant (FSTP) and availability of its treatment technologies. Energy Nexus 100091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100091
Seleman A, Gabrielsson S, Kimwaga R (2021) Faecal sludge containment characteristics and their implications on safe desludging in unplanned settlements of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Journal of environmental management 295:112924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112924
Semiyaga S, Okure MA, Niwagaba CB, Katukiza AY, Kansiime F (2015) Decentralized options for faecal sludge management in urban slum areas of Sub-Saharan Africa: a review of technologies, practices and end-uses. Resour Conserv Recycl 104:109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.09.001
Septien S, Mirara SW, Makununika BSN, Singh A, Pocock J, Velkushanova K, Buckley CA (2020) Effect of drying on the physical and chemical properties of faecal sludge for its reuse. Journal of environmental chemical engineering 8(1):103652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103652
Shahinur S, Sayeed MA, Hasan M, Sayem ASM, Haider J, Ura S (2022) Current development and future perspective on natural jute fibers and their biocomposites. Polymers 14(7):1445. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071445
Simanjuntak S, Soesilo TEB, Hartono DM, Amqam H (2020) An environmentally safe level of faecal sludge management and socio-economic demographic analysis. Enfermeria Clinica 30:398–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enfcli.2019.11.007
Singh S, Mohan RR, Rathi S, Raju NJ (2017) Technology options for faecal sludge management in developing countries: benefits and revenue from reuse. Environ Technol Innov 7:203–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2017.02.004
Singh S, Hariteja N, Prasad TR, Raju NJ, Ramakrishna C (2020) Impact assessment of faecal sludge on groundwater and river water quality in Lucknow environs, Uttar Pradesh, India. Groundw Sustain Dev 11:100461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100461
Smith BA, Eudoxie G, Stein R, Ramnarine R, Raghavan V (2020) Effect of neem leaf inclusion rates on compost physico-chemical, thermal and spectroscopic stability. Waste Manag 114:136–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.06.026
Spritzer JM, Khachan MM, Bhatia SK (2015) Influence of synthetic and natural fibers on dewatering rate and shear strength of slurries in geotextile tube applications. International Journal of Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering 1:26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40891-015-0027-1
Stickland AD, Irvin EH, Skinner SJ, Scales PJ, Hawkey A, Kaswalder F (2016) Filter press performance for fast-filtering compressible suspensions. Chem Eng Technol 39(3):409–416. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.201500354
Teh CY, Budiman PM, Shak KPY, Wu TY (2016) Recent advancement of coagulation–flocculation and its application in wastewater treatment. Ind Eng Chem Res 55(16):4363–4389. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.5b04703
Wanda C, Kengne ES, Wafo GVD, Nzouebet WAL, Nbendah P, Ngandjui YAT, Zapfack L, Noumsi IMK (2021) Quantification and characterisation of faecal sludge from on-site sanitation systems prior the design of a treatment plant in Bangangte, West Region of Cameroon. Environmental Challenges 5:100236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100236
Zhong L, Wu T, Ding J, Xu W, Yuan F, Liu BF, Zhao L, Li Y, Ren NQ, Yang SS (2023) Co-composting of faecal sludge and carbon-rich wastes in the earthworm’s synergistic cooperation system: performance, global warming potential and key microbiome. Sci Total Environ 857:159311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159311
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the organization for extending access to their FSTP and laboratory facilities.
Funding
The present research was supported by the Banka BioLoo Limited.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Sakkubai Lakavathu, Neha Singh, and Jayesh Jadhav. The first draught of the manuscript was written by Atun Roy Choudhury, Sankar Ganesh Palani, Pramod Kamble, and Vamshi Krishna Reddy, and all authors commented on the previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Ta Yeong Wu
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Lakavathu, ., Reddy, V.K., Singh, N. et al. Feasibility study of faecal sludge treatment by Geotube and jute tube–based technologies. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 124382–124400 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30746-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30746-8