Abstract
Port-related activities have a detrimental impact on the air quality both at the point of source and for considerable distances beyond. These activities include, but are not limited to, heavy cargo traffic, onboard, and at-berth emissions. Due to differences in construction, operation, location, and policies at ports, the site-specific air pollution cocktail could result in different human health risks. Thus, monitoring and evaluating such emissions are essential to predict the risk to the community. Environmental agencies often monitor key pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2), but the volatile organic carbons (VOCs) most often are not, due to its analytical challenging. This study intends to fill that gap and evaluate the VOC emissions caused by activities related to the port of Paranaguá — one of the largest bulk ports in Latin America — by characterizing BTEX concentrations at the port and its surroundings. At seven different sites, passive samplers were used to measure the dispersion of BTEX concentrations throughout the port and around the city at weekly intervals from November 2018 to January 2019. The average and uncertainty of BTEX concentrations (µg m−3) were 0.60 ± 0.43, 5.58 ± 3.80, 3.30 ± 2.41, 4.66 ± 3.67, and 2.82 ± 1.95 for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m- and p-xylene, and o-xylene, respectively. Relationships between toluene and benzene and health risk analysis were used to establish the potential effects of BTEX emissions on the population of the city of Paranaguá. Ratio analysis (T/B, B/T, m,p X/Et, and m,p X/B) indicate that the BTEX levels are mainly from fresh emission sources and that photochemical ageing was at minimum. The cancer risk varied across the sampling trajectory, whereas ethylbenzene represented a moderate cancer risk development for the exposed population in some of the locations. This study provided the necessary baseline data to support policymakers on how to change the circumstances of those currently at risk, putting in place a sustainable operation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data acquired or analyzed during this investigation are incorporated in this article.
References
Abnt DA, Iso NBR (2018) Orientações gerais sobre os requisitos da ABNT NBR ISO/IEC 17025:2017. 087
ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Calculating Hazard Quotients and Cancer Risk Estimates (2022). https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pha-guidance/conducting_scientific_evaluations/epcs_and_exposure_calculations/hazardquotients_cancerrisk.html#print. Accessed 29 August 2022
Baltrėnas P, Baltrėnaitė E, Šerevičienė V, Pereira P (2011) Atmospheric BTEX concentrations in the vicinity of the crude oil refinery of the Baltic region. Environ Monit Assess 182:115–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1862-0
Barletta B, Meinardi S, Rowland FS et al (2005) Volatile organic compounds in 43 Chinese cities. Atmos Environ 39:5979–5990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.06.029
Barletta B, Meinardi S, Simpson IJ et al (2008) Ambient mixing ratios of nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) in two major urban centers of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region: Guangzhou and Dongguan. Atmos Environ 42:4393–4408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.01.028
Bretón JGC, Bretón RMC, Ucan FV et al (2017) Characterization and sources of aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) in the atmosphere of two urban sites located in Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. Atmosphere (Basel) 8:. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos8060107
Brocco D, Fratarcangeli R, Lepore L et al (1997) Determination of aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air of Rome. Atmos Environ 31:557–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(96)00226-9
Burwell-Naney K, Wilson SM, Tarver SL et al (2017) Baseline air quality assessment of goods movement activities before the Port of Charleston expansion: a community–university collaborative. Environ Justice 10:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2016.0018
Butterfield DM, Quincey P (2017) An investigation into the effects of off-shore shipping emissions on coastal black carbon concentrations. Aerosol Air Qual Res 17:218–229. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2015.12.0688
Cal-EPA, Budroe JD, Fowles JR et al (2002) Technical support document for describing available cancer potency factors. (2002). https://oehha.ca.gov/media/downloads/crnr/may2005hotspots.pdf. Accessed 13 August 2022
Corbett JJ, Winebrake JJ, Green EH et al (2007) Mortality from ship emissions: a global assessment. Environ Sci Technol 41:8512–8518. https://doi.org/10.1021/es071686z
Cruz LPS, Santos DF, dos Santos IF et al (2020) Exploratory analysis of the atmospheric levels of BTEX, criteria air pollutants and meteorological parameters in a tropical urban area in Northeastern Brazil. Microchem J 152:104265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2019.104265
De Meyer P, Maes F, Volckaert A (2008) Emissions from international shipping in the Belgian part of the North Sea and the Belgian seaports. Atmos Environ 42:196–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.059
Debia M, Neesham-Grenon E, Mudaheranwa OC, Ragettli MS (2016) Diesel exhaust exposures in port workers. J Occup Environ Hyg 13:549–557. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459624.2016.1153802
EC (2008) Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe. Official J Eur Union. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/. Accessed 20 August 2022
Endresen Ø, Sørgård E, Sundet JK, et al (2003) Emission from international sea transportation and environmental impact. J Geophys Res Atmos 108:. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002jd002898
EPA (1989) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Risk assessment guidance for superfund: volume i - human health evaluation manual. (Part A) EPA/540/1-89/002. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response. [online]. Avaliable: https://rais.ornl.gov/documents/HHEMA.pdf. Accessed 10 Oct 2021
EPA (1994) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Locating and estimating air emissions from sources of toluene (Final Report); [online]. Available: https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/le/toluene.pdf. Accessed 25 Oct 2021
EPA (2002) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. A review of the reference dose and reference concentration processes document. https://www.epa.gov/osa/review-reference-dose-and-reference-concentration-processes. Accessed 10 Jan 2023
EPA (2011) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Exposure factors handbook 2011 (Final Report); [online]. Available: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=236252. Accessed 01 Jan 2023
EPA (2018) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2015-2016 national monitoring programs. (Annual Report); [online]. Available: https://www3.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/files/ambient/airtox/2015-2016%20NMP%20Report%20508.pdf. Accessed 30 Nov 2021
Eyring V, Köhler HW, Van Aardenne J, Lauer A (2005) Emissions from international shipping: 1. The last 50 years. J Geophys Res D Atmos 110:171–182. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005619
Eyring V, Isaksen ISA, Berntsen T et al (2010) Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: shipping. Atmos Environ 44:4735–4771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.04.059
FINDAPORT (2021) TEPAR (Terminal Paranaguá) Sheltered port handling containers, dry bulk, breakbulk, passengers, reefer and tankers. (2021). https://www.findaport.com/port-of-paranagua. Accessed 13 March 2022
Garzón JP, Huertas JI, Magaña M et al (2015) Volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere of Mexico City. Atmos Environ 119:415–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.08.014
Gaston CJ, Quinn PK, Bates TS et al (2013) The impact of shipping, agricultural, and urban emissions on single particle chemistry observed aboard the R/V Atlantis during CalNex. J Geophys Res Atmos 118:5003–5017. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50427
Gee IL, Sollars CJ (1998) Ambient air levels of volatile organic compounds in Latin American and Asian cities. Chemosphere 36:2497–2506. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(97)10217-X
Giakoumi A, Maggos TH, Michopoulos J et al (2009) PM2.5 and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in ambient air: a focus on the effect of meteorology. Environ Monit Assess 152:83–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0298-2
Górecki T, Namienik J (2002) Passive sampling. Trends Anal Chem 21:276–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-9936(02)00407-7
Gregoris E, Barbaro E, Morabito E et al (2016) Impact of maritime traffic on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and particulate matter in Venice air. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:6951–6959. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5811-x
Hamid HHA, Latif MT, Uning R, et al (2020) Observations of BTEX in the ambient air of Kuala Lumpur by passive sampling. Environ Monit Assess 192:. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08311-4
Han I, Guo Y, Afshar M, et al (2017) Comparison of trace elements in size-fractionated particles in two communities with contrasting socioeconomic status in Houston, TX. Environ Monit Assess 189:. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5780-2
Hartmann R, Voght U, Baumbach G et al (1997) Results of emission and ambient air measurements of VOC in Izmir. Environ Res Forum 7:107–112
Huang C, Hu Q, Wang H et al (2018) Emission factors of particulate and gaseous compounds from a large cargo vessel operated under real-world conditions. Environ Pollut 242:667–674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.036
Jiang Z, Grosselin B, Daële V et al (2017) Seasonal and diurnal variations of BTEX compounds in the semi-urban environment of Orleans, France. Sci Total Environ 574:1659–1664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.214
Kotrikla AM, Lilas T, Nikitakos N (2017) Abatement of air pollution at an Aegean island port utilizing shore side electricity and renewable energy. Mar Policy 75:238–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.01.026
Le TH, Lin C, Nguyen DH, et al (2022) Volatile organic compounds in ambient air of a major Asian port: spatiotemporal variation and source apportionment. Environ Sci Pollut Res.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24138-7
Mason JB, Fujita EM, Campbell DE, Zielinska B (2011) Evaluation of passive samplers for assessment of community exposure to toxic air contaminants and related pollutants. Environ Sci Technol 45:2243–2249. https://doi.org/10.1021/es102500v
Miller L, Xu X, Wheeler A et al (2011) Spatial variability and application of ratios between BTEX in two Canadian Cities. Sci World J 11:2536–2549. https://doi.org/10.1100/2011/167973
Monod A, Sive BC, Avino P et al (2001) Monoaromatic compounds in ambient air of various cities: a focus on correlations between the xylenes and ethylbenzene. Atmos Environ 35:135–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00274-0
Mor S, Kumar S, Singh T et al (2021) Impact of COVID-19 lockdown on air quality in Chandigarh, India: understanding the emission sources during controlled anthropogenic activities. Chemosphere 263:127978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127978
Na K, Kim YP (2001) Seasonal characteristics of ambient volatile organic compounds in Seoul, Korea. Atmos Environ 35:2603–2614. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00464-7
Nelson PF, Quigley SM (1983) The m, p-xylenes:ethylbenzene ratio. A technique for estimating hydrocarbon age in ambient atmospheres. Atmos Environ 17:659–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(83)90141-5
Prati MV, Costagliola MA, Quaranta F, Murena F (2015) Assessment of ambient air quality in the port of Naples. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 65:970–979. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2015.1050129
Radiello (2006) Volatile organic compounds (VOC's) thermally desorbed. 1–6. https://radiello.com/
Rice LSJ, Jiang C, Wilson SM et al (2014) Use of segregation indices, townsend index, and air toxics data to assess lifetime cancer risk disparities in metropolitan Charleston, South Carolina, USA. Int J Environ Res Public Health 11:5510–5526. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110505510
Robson MG, Toscano WA (2007) Risk assessment for environmental health. John Wiley & Son
Roukos J, Riffault V, Locoge N, Plaisance H (2009) VOC in an urban and industrial harbor on the French North Sea coast during two contrasted meteorological situations. Environ Pollut 157:3001–3009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2009.05.059
Rumchev K, Brown H, Spickett J (2007) Volatile organic compounds: do they present a risk to our health? Rev Environ Health 22:39
Salvador CMG, Alindajao AD, Burdeos KB, et al (2022) Assessment of impact of meteorology and precursor in long-term trends of PM and ozone in a tropical city. Aerosol Air Qual Res 22:. https://doi.org/10.4209/AAQR.210269
Sexton K, Linder SH, Marko D et al (2007) Comparative assessment of air pollution-related health risks in Houston. Environ Health Persp 115:1388–1393. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10043
Super I, Denier van der Gon HAC, Visschedijk AJH et al (2017) Interpreting continuous in-situ observations of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide in the urban port area of Rotterdam. Atmos Pollut Res 8:174–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.08.008
Thomas JF, Sluder CS, Kass MD, Theiss T (2019) A guide to fuel, lubricant, and engine concerns relative to the IMO 2020 Fuel Oil Sulfur Reduction Mandate. Oak Ridge National Laboratory
UNCTAD (2021) UNCTAD’S review of maritime transport 2020. https://unctad.org/press-material/unctads-review-maritime-transport-2020-highlights-and-figures-latin-america-and. Accessed 28 June 2022
Viana M, Hammingh P, Colette A et al (2014) Impact of maritime transport emissions on coastal air quality in Europe. Atmos Environ 90:96–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.03.046
Xiao Q, Li M, Liu H et al (2018) Characteristics of marine shipping emissions at berth: Profiles for particulate matter and volatile organic compounds. Atmos Chem Phys 18:9527–9545. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-9527-2018
Zhang L, Li H (2017) Retracted: Evaluation system of urban environmental pollution based on the principal component analysis. In: 2016 International Conference on Smart City and Systems Engineering (ICSCSE), Hunan, pp 47–49. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSCSE.2016.0023
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the population of Paranaguá for their collaboration to carry out the experimental activities. In the same way, they thank the LACAUT laboratory for their technical support. The authors also wish to thank the LAB AIR laboratory and its staff for their analytical support.
Funding
The authors received financial support from the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior — CAPES) (Finance Code 001).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Hugo Sarmiento: methodology, investigation, data curation, writing — original draft, writing — review and editing. Sanja Potgieter-Vermaak: conceptualization, data curation, writing — review and editing, visualization. Guilherme C. Borillo: methodology, investigation, writing — review and editing. Ana Flavia L. Godoi: resources, writing — review and editing. Rodrigo A. Reis: resources, writing — review and editing. Carlos I. Yamamoto: resources, writing — review and editing, funding acquisition. Theotonio Pauliquevis: formal analysis, writing — review and editing. Gabriela Polezer: software, writing — review and editing. Ricardo H.M. Godoi: resources, writing — review and editing, funding acquisition.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
We affirm that the article has been studied and accepted by all listed authors. In addition, we affirm that all the authors mentioned in the article have been approved by all of us.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sarmiento, H., Potgieter-Vermaak, S., Borillo, G.C. et al. BTEX profile and health risk at the largest bulk port in Latin America, Paranaguá Port. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 63084–63095 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26508-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-26508-1