Abstract
The intensive and long-term use of atrazine (ATZ) has led to the contamination of agricultural soils and non-target organisms, posing a series of threats to human health through the transmission of the food chain. In this study, a 60-day greenhouse pot experiment was carried out to explore the phytoremediation by Chrysopogon zizanioides L. (vetiver). The uptake, accumulation, distribution, and removal of ATZ were investigated, and the degradation mechanisms were elucidated. The results showed that the growth of vetiver was inhibited in the first 10 days of the incubation; subsequently, the plant recovered rapidly with time going. Vetiver grass was capable of taking up ATZ from the soil, with root concentration factor ranging from 2.36 to 15.55, and translocating to the shoots, with shoot concentration factor ranging from 7.51 to 17.52. The dissipation of ATZ in the rhizosphere soil (97.51%) was significantly higher than that in the vetiver-unplanted soil (85.14%) at day 60. Metabolites were identified as hydroxyatrazine (HA), deethylatrazine (DEA), deisopropylatrazine (DIA), and didealkylatrazine (DDA) in the samples of the shoots and roots of vetiver as well as the soils treated with ATZ. HA, DEA, DIA, and DDA were reported first time as metabolites of ATZ in shoots and roots of vetiver grown in soil. The presence of vetiver changed the formation and distribution of the dealkylated products in the rhizosphere soil, which remarkably enhanced the occurrence of DEA, DIA, and DDA. Arthrobacter, Bradyrhizobium, Nocardioides, and Rhodococcus were the major atrazine-degrading bacterial genera, which might be responsible for ATZ degradation in the rhizosphere soil. Our findings suggested that vetiver grass can significantly promote ATZ degradation in the soil, and it could be a strategy for remediation of the atrazine-contaminated agricultural soil.
Graphical Abstract
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Data availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. The data in determining atrazine and its metabolites, as well as the method validation, are in this published article and its supplementary information files.
Abbreviations
- C. zizanioides :
-
Chrysopogon zizanioides L.
- ATZ :
-
atrazine
- TPs :
-
transformation products
- HA :
-
hydroxyatrazine
- DEA :
-
deethylatrazine
- DIA :
-
deisopropylatrazine
- DDA :
-
didealkylatrazine
- CYA :
-
cyanuric acid
- IPA :
-
N-isopropylammelide
- BU :
-
biuret
- TF :
-
transfer factor
- SCF :
-
shoot concentration factor
- RCF :
-
root concentration factor
- LOD :
-
limit of detection
- LOQ :
-
limit of quantification
- OTUs :
-
operational taxonomic units
- HPLC :
-
high-performance liquid chromatography
- LC–MS/MS :
-
high-performance liquid chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometer
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Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the following funding organizations: the National Natural Science Foundation of China, Science and Technology Department of Yunnan Province, Yunnan Provincial Department of Human Resources and Social Security, Southwest Forestry University, and Yunnan Provincial Postdoctoral Science Foundation. Meanwhile, the authors appreciate Prof. Li Tang and Jingxiu Xiao from Yunnan Agricultural University for the improvement of the experimental conditions, Mr. Liang Li from Yunnan Center of Animal Disease Prevention and Control, and Miss Liping Li from Southwest Forestry University for the assistance in the use of HPLC–MS/MS.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 41867027; 51463014); Provincial key project of Basic Research Program of Yunnan Province (202201AS070028); “Ten Thousand Plan” youth top-notch talents project of Yunnan Province (80201442); innovation team of Ministry of environmental pollution, food safety and human health of Southwest Forestry University (202005AE160017); the fourth batch of postdoctoral research fund projects of Yunnan Province (321801).
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Faming Zhang: methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft. Yuhong Rong: methodology, investigation. Lili Mao: visualization, writing—original draft. Shuchun Yang: investigation, data curation. Ling Qian: investigation. Rongbiao Li: sample processing. Shixian Sun: conceptualization; writing—review and editing; project administration; funding acquisition. Yi Zheng: supervision; resources; writing—review and editing; funding acquisition.
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Shixian Sun and Yi Zheng contributed equally to this work.
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Zhang, F., Sun, S., Rong, Y. et al. Enhanced phytoremediation of atrazine-contaminated soil by vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides L.) and associated bacteria. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 44415–44429 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25395-w
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25395-w