Abstract
This study utilises ground, satellite and model data to investigate the observed and future precipitation changes in Pakistan. Pakistan Meteorological Department’s (PMD) monthly precipitation data set along with the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) monthly dataset TRMM_3B43 (0.25° × 0.25° resolution) and European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts’s (ECMWF) monthly reanalysis product ERA5 have been used to evaluate rainfall trends over the climatic zones of Pakistan through Mann–Kendall test, Sen’s slope estimator and innovative trend analysis for the time period 1978–2018. Community Climate System Model (CCSM4) projections have been employed to explore the projected changes in precipitation until 2099. Furthermore, TRMM and CCSM4 projections have been correlated and validated using root mean square error (RMSE) and mean bias error (MBE). There is a good correlation between TRMM and PMD ground observation at all stations of the country for all seasons, with correlation coefficient values ranging from 0.89 (November) to 0.97 (July and August). However, ERA5 monthly precipitation tends to overestimate rainfall in the winter months. The study shows a decreasing trend in winter precipitation in all zones of the country with a significant decrease over western mountains, i.e. zone C of the country. During 2008–2018, a sharp decrease in winter precipitation is observed as compared to the baseline value of 1978–2007 in all climatic zones. Rainy days have also shown a decrease in winter and pre-monsoon seasons. There seems to be a shift in precipitation from winter towards pre-monsoon season as pre-monsoon precipitation in the last 11 years increased in all zones except for zone C. Coherently, there is a decrease in an area affected by winter precipitation and an increase in area for pre-monsoon precipitation. Future precipitation estimates from the CCSM4 model for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 overestimate precipitation in most parts of the country for the first 9 observed years (2010–2018) and predict a rise in precipitation by 2099 which is more pronounced in the northern and western Pakistan while a decrease is predicted for the plains of the country, which might have negative consequences for agriculture.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Satellite data analyses used in this study were produced with the Giovanni online data system, developed and maintained by the NASA GES DISC. It can be accessed at https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov. Reanalysis precipitation product ERA5 was downloaded from the Climate Data Centre (CDS) of ECMWF, which can be accessed at https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu. The ground data that support the findings of this study are available from the Climate Data Processing Centre (CDPC) of the Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD), but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under licence for the current study, and so are not publicly available.
References
Adnan M, Rehman N, Khan AA, Mir KA, Khan MA (2017) Influence of natural forcing phenomena on precipitation of Pakistan. Pak J Meteorol 12
Afzal M, (Pakistan M.D., Haroon, M.A. (Pakistan M.D., Rana, A.S. (Pakistan M.D., Imran, A (2013) Influence of north Atlantic oscillations and southern oscillations on winter precipitation of northern Pakistan. Pak J Meteorol Pak.
Ahmad I, Ambreen R, Sun Z, Deng W (2015) Winter-spring precipitation variability in Pakistan. Am J Clim Change 4:115–139. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajcc.2015.41010
Akhtar IuH, Athar H (2019) Contribution of changing precipitation and climatic oscillations in explaining variability of water extents of large reservoirs in Pakistan. Sci Rep 9:19022. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54872-x
Ali MA, Hassan M, Mehmood M, Kazmi DH, Chishtie FA, Shahid I (2022) The potential impact of climate extremes on cotton and wheat crops in southern Punjab. Pakistan Sustainability 14:1609. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031609
Ali S, Khalid B, Kiani RS, Babar R, Nasir S, Rehman N, Adnan M, Goheer MA (2019) Spatio-temporal variability of summer monsoon onset over Pakistan. Asia-Pac J Atmospheric Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13143-019-00130-z
Alifujiang Y, Abuduwaili J, Maihemuti B, Emin B, Groll M (2020) Innovative trend analysis of precipitation in the Lake Issyk-Kul basin. Kyrgyzstan Atmosphere 11:332. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11040332
Annamalai H, Hafner J, Sooraj KP, Pillai P (2012) Global warming shifts the monsoon circulation, drying south Asia. J Clim 26:2701–2718. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00208.1
Arab Amiri M, Gocić M (2021) Innovative trend analysis of annual precipitation in Serbia during 1946–2019. Environ Earth Sci 80:777. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-10095-w
Arshad M, Ma X, Yin J, Ullah W, Liu M, Ullah I (2021) Performance evaluation of ERA-5, JRA-55, MERRA-2, and CFS-2 reanalysis datasets, over diverse climate regions of Pakistan. Weather Clim Extrem 33:100373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2021.100373
Ashfaq M, Shi Y, Tung W, Trapp RJ, Gao X, Pal JS, Diffenbaugh NS (2009) Suppression of south Asian summer monsoon precipitation in the 21st century. Geophys Res Lett 36.https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036500
Baudouin J-P, Herzog M, Petrie CA (2020) Cross-validating precipitation datasets in the Indus River basin. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 24:427–450. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-427-2020
Cao Y, Zhang W, Wang W (2018) Evaluation of TRMM 3B43 data over the Yangtze River Delta of China. Sci Rep 8:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-23603-z
Dahri ZH, Ludwig F, Moors E, Ahmad S, Ahmad B, Shoaib M, Ali I, Iqbal MS, Pomee MS, Mangrio AG, Ahmad MM, Kabat P (2021) Spatio-temporal evaluation of gridded precipitation products for the high-altitude Indus basin. Int J Climatol 41:4283–4306. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.7073
Dimri AP, Yasunari T, Kotlia BS, Mohanty UC, Sikka DR (2016) Indian winter monsoon: present and past. Earth-Sci Rev 163:297–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.008
Dore MHI (2005) Climate change and changes in global precipitation patterns: what do we know? Environ Int 31:1167–1181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2005.03.004
Durbin J, Watson GS (1992) Testing for serial correlation in least squares regression. I, in: Kotz, S., Johnson, N.L. (Eds.), Breakthroughs in Statistics: Methodology and Distribution, Springer Series in Statistics. Springer, New York, NY, pp. 237–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4380-9_20
Durbin J, Watson GS (1971) Testing for serial correlation in least squares regression.III. Biometrika 58:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/58.1.1
Fang J, Yang W, Luan Y, Du J, Lin A, Zhao L (2019) Evaluation of the TRMM 3B42 and GPM IMERG products for extreme precipitation analysis over China. Atmospheric Res 223:24–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.03.001
Gent P, Danabasoglu G, Donner L, Holland M, Hunke E, Jayne S, Lawrence D, Neale R, Rasch P, Vertenstein M, Worley P, Yang Z-L, Zhang M (2011) The community climate system model version 4. J Clim 24:4973–4991. https://doi.org/10.1175/2011JCLI4083.1
Hersbach H, Bell B, Berrisford P, Hirahara S, Horányi A, Muñoz-Sabater J, Nicolas J, Peubey C, Radu R, Schepers D, Simmons A, Soci C, Abdalla S, Abellan X, Balsamo G, Bechtold P, Biavati G, Bidlot J, Bonavita M, De Chiara G, Dahlgren P, Dee D, Diamantakis M, Dragani R, Flemming J, Forbes R, Fuentes M, Geer A, Haimberger L, Healy S, Hogan RJ, Hólm E, Janisková M, Keeley S, Laloyaux P, Lopez P, Lupu C, Radnoti G, de Rosnay P, Rozum I, Vamborg F, Villaume S, Thépaut J-N (2020) The ERA5 global reanalysis. Q J R Meteorol Soc 146:1999–2049. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803
Heureux AMC, Alvar-Beltrán J, Manzanas R, Ali M, Wahaj R, Dowlatchahi M, Afzaal M, Kazmi D, Ahmed B, Salehnia N, Fujisawa M, Vuolo MR, Kanamaru H, Gutiérrez JM (2022) Climate trends and extremes in the Indus River Basin, Pakistan: implications for agricultural production. Atmosphere 13:378. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13030378
Hewer MJ, Gough WA (2020) Quantifying the changing nature of the winter season precipitation phase from 1849 to 2017 in downtown Toronto (Canada). Atmosphere 11:867. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11080867
Hoegh-Guldberg O, Jacob D, Taylor M, Bindi M, Brown S, Camilloni I, Diedhiou A, Djalante R, Ebi KL, Engelbrecht F, Guiot J, Hijioka Y, Mehrotra S, Payne A, Seneviratne SI, Thomas A, Warren R.F, Zhou G, Tschakert P (2018) Impacts of 1.5°C global warming on natural and human systems. Glob. Warm. 15°C IPCC Spec. Rep. Impacts Glob. Warm. 15°C Pre-Ind. Levels Relat. Glob. Greenh. Gas Emiss. Pathw. Context Strength. Glob. Response Threat Clim. Change Sustain. Dev. Efforts Eradicate Poverty
Huffman GJ, Bolvin DT, Nelkin EJ, Wolff DB, Adler RF, Gu G, Hong Y, Bowman KP, Stocker EF (2007) The TRMM multisatellite precipitation analysis (TMPA): quasi-global, multiyear, combined-sensor precipitation estimates at fine scales. J Hydrometeorol 8:38–55. https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM560.1
Hunt KMR, Turner AG, Shaffrey LC (2019) falling Trend of Western disturbances in future climate simulations. J Clim 32:5037–5051. https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-18-0601.1
Hussain A, Cao J, Hussain I, Begum S, Akhtar M, Wu X, Guan Y, Zhou J (2021a) Observed trends and variability of temperature and precipitation and their global teleconnections in the upper Indus Basin, Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalaya. Atmosphere 12:973. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12080973
Hussain F, Nabi G, Wu R-S (2021b) Spatiotemporal rainfall distribution of Soan River Basin, Pothwar Region. Pakistan Adv Meteorol 2021:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6656732
IPCC (2013) Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner G-K, Tignor M, Allen SK, Boschung J, Nauels A, Xia Y, Bex V, Midgley PM (eds) Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1535
Islam AKMN, Sultan S, Afroz (2009) Climate change and south Asia: what makes the region most vulnerable? (No. 21875), MPRA Paper, MPRA Paper. University Library of Munich, Germany
Islam MdN, Uyeda H (2007) Use of TRMM in determining the climatic characteristics of rainfall over Bangladesh. Remote Sens Environ 108:264–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.11.011
IUCN Pakistan (2012) Balochistan partnerships for sustainable development: “climate change and coastal districts of Balochistan- situation analysis, implications and recommendations” IUCN Pakistan, Quetta.
Khan SI, Hong Y, Gourley JJ, Khattak MUK, Yong B, Vergara HJ (2014) Evaluation of three high-resolution satellite precipitation estimates: potential for monsoon monitoring over Pakistan. Adv Space Res 54:670–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2014.04.017
Kilonzo FN, Kenyatta University, Agricultural and biosystems department, Kibet LJ, University of Florida, Civil and Coastal Engineering Department (2022) Data test and pre-treatment for hydrological modelling and applications. J Eng Agric Environ 8. https://doi.org/10.37017/jeae-volume8-no1.2022-5
Kumar D, Gautam AK, Palmate SS, Pandey A, Suryavanshi S, Rathore N, Sharma N (2017) Evaluation of TRMM multi-satellite precipitation analysis (TMPA) against terrestrial measurement over a humid sub-tropical basin. India Theor Appl Climatol 129:783–799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-016-1807-9
Kumar KR, Pant GB, Parthasarathy B, Sontakke NA (1992) Spatial and subseasonal patterns of the long-term trends of Indian summer monsoon rainfall. Int J Climatol 12:257–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3370120303
Kumbhar MI, Rind ZK, Chang FK, Baloch N, Baloch S (2019) Effect of climate change on the livelihood of coastal areas of Taluka Sonmaini, District Lasbela, Balochistan. Int J Environ Sci Nat Resour 21:1–9. https://doi.org/10.19080/IJESNR.2019.21.556053
Kummerow C, Barnes W, Kozu T, Shiue J, Simpson J (1998) The tropical rainfall measuring mission (TRMM) sensor package. J Atmospheric Ocean Technol 15:809–817. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015%3c0809:TTRMMT%3e2.0.CO;2
Latif Y, Yaoming M, Yaseen M, Muhammad S, Wazir MA (2020) Spatial analysis of temperature time series over the upper Indus Basin (UIB) Pakistan. Theor Appl Climatol 139:741–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-019-02993-8
Liu Z (2015) Comparison of versions 6 and 7 3-hourly TRMM multi-satellite precipitation analysis (TMPA) research products. Atmospheric Res., 6th Workshop of the International Precipitation Working Group 163, 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.12.015
Loo YY, Billa L, Singh A (2015) Effect of climate change on seasonal monsoon in Asia and its impact on the variability of monsoon rainfall in Southeast Asia. Geosci. Front. Special Issue: Geoinformation Techniques in Natural Hazard Modeling 6:817–823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2014.02.009
Malik KM, Mahmood A, Kazmi DH, Khan JM (2012). Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture during Winter Season over Pakistan. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2012.38122
Mann HB (1945) Nonparametric tests against trend. Econometrica 13:245–259. https://doi.org/10.2307/1907187
Mobeen M, Ahmed H, Ullah F, Riaz MO, Mustafa I, Khan MR, Hanif MU (2017) Impact of climate change on the precipitation pattern of district Sargodha, Pakistan. Int J Clim Change Strateg Manag 9:21–35. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-10-2015-0147
MohdZad SN, Zulkafli Z, Muharram FM (2018) Satellite Rainfall (TRMM 3B42-V7) Performance assessment and adjustment over Pahang River Basin. Malaysia Remote Sens 10:388. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10030388
Moss RH, Edmonds JA, Hibbard KA, Manning MR, Rose SK, van Vuuren DP, Carter TR, Emori S, Kainuma M, Kram T, Meehl GA, Mitchell JFB, Nakicenovic N, Riahi K, Smith SJ, Stouffer RJ, Thomson AM, Weyant JP, Wilbanks TJ (2010) The next generation of scenarios for climate change research and assessment. Nature 463:747–756. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08823
Nawaz Z, Li X, Chen Y, Guo Y, Wang X, Nawaz N (2019) Temporal and spatial characteristics of precipitation and temperature in Punjab, Pakistan
Nawaz Z, Li X, Chen Y, Nawaz N, Gull R, Elnashar A (2020) Spatio-temporal assessment of global precipitation products over the largest agriculture region in Pakistan. Remote Sens 12:3650. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12213650
Naz F, Dars GH, Ansari K, Jamro S, Krakauer NY (2020) Drought trends in Balochistan. Water 12:470. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020470
Ougahi JH, Mahmood SA (2022) Evaluation of satellite-based and reanalysis precipitation datasets by hydrologic simulation in the Chenab river basin. J Water Clim Change 13:1563–1582. https://doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2022.410
Prakash S, Mitra AK, AghaKouchak A, Pai DS (2015) Error characterization of TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA-3B42) products over India for different seasons. J Hydrol 529:1302–1312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2015.08.062
Rahman MM, Arya DS, Goel NK, Mitra AK (2012) Rainfall statistics evaluation of ECMWF model and TRMM data over Bangladesh for flood related studies. Meteorol Appl 19:501–512. https://doi.org/10.1002/met.293
Rasul G (2008) Preliminary results of agrometeorological soil moisture conservation experiment at Quetta. Pak J Meteorol 5
Rasul G, Chaudhry QZ (2010) Review of advance in research on Asian summer monsoon. Pak J Meteorol 6
del Río S, Iqbal MA, Cano-Ortiz A, Herrero L, Hassan A, Penas A (2013) Recent mean temperature trends in Pakistan and links with teleconnection patterns. Int J Climatol 33:277–290. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3423
Roxy MK, Ritika K, Terray P, Murtugudde R, Ashok K, Goswami BN (2015) Drying of Indian subcontinent by rapid Indian Ocean warming and a weakening land-sea thermal gradient. Nat Commun 6:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8423
Saddique N, Khaliq A, Bernhofer C (2020) Trends in temperature and precipitation extremes in historical (1961–1990) and projected (2061–2090) periods in a data scarce mountain basin, northern Pakistan. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 34:1441–1455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-020-01829-6
Safdar F, Khokhar MF, Arshad M, Adil IH (2019) Climate change indicators and spatiotemporal shift in monsoon patterns in Pakistan. Adv Meteorol 2019:8281201. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8281201
Salma S (Peshawar U. (Pakistan)), Rehman S (Peshawar U. (Pakistan)), Shah MA (Pakistan MD (2012) Rainfall trends in different climate zones of Pakistan. Pak J Meteorol Pak
Semire FA, Mohd-Mokhtar R, Ismail W, Mohamad N, Mandeep JS (2012) Ground validation of space-borne satellite rainfall products in Malaysia. Adv Space Res 50:1241–1249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2012.06.031
Sen PK (1968) Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall’s Tau. J Am Stat Assoc 63:1379–1389. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1968.10480934
Şen Z (2012) Innovative trend analysis methodology. J Hydrol Eng 17:1042–1046. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000556
Shahid M, Rahman KU, Haider S, Gabriel HF, Khan AJ, Pham QB, Mohammadi B, Linh NTT, Anh DT (2021) Assessing the potential and hydrological usefulness of the CHIRPS precipitation dataset over a complex topography in Pakistan. Hydrol Sci J 66:1664–1684. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2021.1957476
Sheikh MM, Manzoor N, Ashraf J, Adnan M, Collins D, Hameed S, Manton MJ, Ahmed AU, Baidya SK, Borgaonkar HP, Islam N, Jayasinghearachchi D, Kothawale DR, Premalal KHMS, Revadekar JV, Shrestha ML (2015) Trends in extreme daily rainfall and temperature indices over South Asia. Int J Climatol 35:1625–1637. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4081
Singh R, Sah S, Das B, Potekar S, Chaudhary A, Pathak H (2021) Innovative trend analysis of spatio-temporal variations of rainfall in India during 1901–2019. Theor Appl Climatol 145:821–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-021-03657-2
Syed FS, Giorgi F, Pal JS, Keay K (2010) Regional climate model simulation of winter climate over Central-Southwest Asia, with emphasis on NAO and ENSO effects. Int J Climatol 30:220–235. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1887
Trenberth KE (2011) Changes in precipitation with climate change. Clim Res 47:123–138. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr00953
Ullah W, Wang G, Ali G, Tawia Hagan DF, Bhatti AS, Lou D (2019) Comparing multiple precipitation products against in-situ observations over different climate regions of Pakistan. Remote Sens 11:628. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11060628
Xu S-G, Niu Z, Shen Y (2014) Understanding the dependence of the uncertainty in a satellite precipitation data set on the underlying surface and a correction method based on geographically weighted regression. Int J Remote Sens 35:6508–6521. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2014.955147
YADAV, R.K., RUPA KUMAR, K., RAJEEVAN, M., (2012) Characteristic features of winter precipitation and its variability over northwest India. J Earth Syst Sci 121:611–623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-012-0184-8
Yang X, Yong B, Hong Y, Chen S, Zhang X (2016) Error analysis of multi-satellite precipitation estimates with an independent rain gauge observation network over a medium-sized humid basin. Hydrol Sci J 61:1813–1830. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2015.1040020
Zhang Z, Jin Q, Chen X, Xu C-Y, Chen S, Moss EM, Huang Y (2016a) Evaluation of TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis in the Yangtze River Basin with a typical monsoon climate [WWW Document]. Adv Meteorol. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016a/7329765
Zhang Z, Jin Q, Chen X, Xu C-Y, Chen S, Moss EM, Huang Y (2016b) Evaluation of TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis in the Yangtze River Basin with a typical monsoon climate [WWW Document]. Adv Meteorol. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016b/7329765
Zhao Y, Xie Q, Lu Y, Hu B (2017) Hydrologic evaluation of TRMM multisatellite precipitation analysis for Nanliu River Basin in humid southwestern China. Sci Rep 7:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-02704-1
Zulkafli Z, Buytaert W, Onof C, Manz B, Tarnavsky E, Lavado W, Guyot J-L (2013) A comparative performance analysis of TRMM 3B42 (TMPA) versions 6 and 7 for hydrological applications over Andean-Amazon River Basins. J Hydrometeorol 15:581–592. https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-13-094.1
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) for providing its ground stations’ monthly precipitation data used in this study. Satellite data analyses used in this study were produced with the Giovanni online data system, developed and maintained by the NASA GES DISC. Reanalysis precipitation product ERA5 was downloaded from the Climate Data Centre (CDS) of ECMWF.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Fasiha Safdar: investigation, formal data analysis, visualisation and writing – original draft preparation.
Muhammad Fahim Khokhar: supervision, visualisation, writing – review and editing.
Fatimah Mahmood: investigation, formal data analysis.
Muhammad Zeeshan Ali Khan: methodology, writing – review and editing.
Muhammad Arshad: methodology, writing – review and editing
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Highlights
• Decline in winter whereas an increase in pre-monsoon precipitation is observed over the region during 1978–2018.
• Rainy days in winter and pre-monsoon seasons have decreased.
• Coherently, there is a decline in an area affected by winter precipitation and an increase in an area impacted by pre-monsoon precipitation.
• TRMM satellite data monthly product TRMM_3B43 has a good correlation with ground station observations and can be a promising substitute for regions with limited gauge stations.
• CCSM4 model projections for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 overestimate precipitation in most zones of Pakistan for the first 9 years.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Safdar, F., Khokhar, M.F., Mahmood, F. et al. Observed and predicted precipitation variability across Pakistan with special focus on winter and pre-monsoon precipitation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 4510–4530 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22502-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22502-1