Abstract
Historical underground storage sites for decommissioned capacitors containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were import sources of high-concentration PCB contaminants. However, few studies have delved into the characteristics of these sites. We investigated the wastes and cleaned-up soil, soil PCB contamination, and potential risks of 16 underground PCB-capacitor storage sites in China. Among these sites, PCB leakage occurred at all the sites with direct burial (six sites) and brick structures (three sites) and at three out of the seven sites with cement structures. From each site, an average of 60.7 t of wastes and contaminated soil were cleaned up, and the contaminated soil accounted for an average of 65.5% of the total wastes. The maximum contents of total PCBs, 12 dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs), and 7 indicator PCBs (ID-PCBs) in the soil samples of each site were 51–30,700 mg/kg, 1.1–379.7 mg/kg, and 2.3–10,340 mg/kg, respectively. The total PCB and PCB congener contents in soil showed clear short-range heterogeneity as differences of up to orders of magnitude were found within a short distance (e.g., 2 m). Based on the human health risk assessment model, the maximum risks of all the sites were above the acceptable risk level (10−6). More than a half of the samples within different sites showed higher risks as per calculations with total PCB contents than for calculations with DL-PCB contents, indicating that only focusing on DL-PCBs may underestimate the potential risks for PCB-capacitor storage sites.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Aganbi, E., Iwegbue, C. M. A., & Martincigh, B. S. (2019). Concentrations and risks of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in transformer oils and the environment of a power plant in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Toxicology Reports, 6, 933–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2019.08.008
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. (1999). Canadian soil quality guidelines for the protection of environmental and human health: Polychlorinated biphenyls (total). http://ceqg-rcqe.ccme.ca/download/en/274. (accessed on January 19, 2021)
Chakraborty, P., Selvaraj, S., Nakamura, M., Prithiviraj, B., Cincinelli, A., & Bang, J. J. (2018). PCBs and PCDD/Fs in soil from informal e-waste recycling sites and open dumpsites in India: Levels, congener profiles and health risk assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 621, 930–938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.083
Debela, S. A., Sheriff, I., Wu, J., Hua, Q., Zhang, Y., & Dibaba, A. K. (2020). Occurrences, distribution of PCBs in urban soil and management of old transformers dumpsite in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Scientific African, 8, e00329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00329
Die, Q., Nie, Z., Yang, Y., Tang, Z., & Huang, Q. (2015). Persistent organic pollutant waste in China: A review of past experiences and future challenges. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 17, 434–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-014-0282-6
Frame, G. M., Cochran, J. W., & Bøwadt, S. S. (1996). Complete PCB congener distributions for 17 aroclor mixtures determined by 3 HRGC systems optimized for comprehensive, quantitative, congener-specific analysis. Journal of High Resolution Chromatography, 19, 657–668. https://doi.org/10.1002/jhrc.1240191202
Huang, J., Matsumura, T., Yu, G., Deng, S., Yamauchi, M., Yamazaki, N., & Weber, R. (2011). Determination of PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs in insulating oil samples from stored Chinese electrical capacitors by HRGC/HRMS. Chemosphere, 85, 239–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.06.023
Javorska, H., Tlustos, P., Komarek, M., Lestan, D., Kaliszov, R., & Szakov, J. (2009). Effect of ozonation on polychlorinated biphenyl degradation and on soil physico-chemical properties. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 161, 1202–1207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.071
Jenkins, T. F., Grant, C. L., Brar, G. S., Thorne, P. G., Schumacher, P. W., & Ranney, T. A. (1997). Sampling error associated with collection and analysis of soil samples at TNT-contaminated sites. Field Analytical Chemistry & Technology, 1, 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6521(1997)1:3%3c151::AID-FACT5%3e3.0.CO;2-%23
Johnson, G. W., Quensen, I. I. I. J. F., Chiarenzelli, J. R., & Hamilton, M. C. (2005). Polychlorinated biphenyls. In R. D. Morrison & B. L. Murphy (Eds.), Environmental Forensics (pp. 187–225). Academic Press.
Kukharchyk, T. I., Kazyrenka, M. I., & Lapko, T. L. (2018). Transformation features of soils on electric substations due to the leakage of polychlorinated biphenyls. Eurasian Soil Science, 51, 720–730. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229318040105
Li, J., Fan, J., Jiang, J., Zhai, Y., Luo, Z., Zhang, Z., & Wu, J. (2019). Human health risk assessment of soil in an abandoned arsenic plant site: Implications for contaminated site remediation. Environmental Earth Sciences, 78, 673. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8715-0
Liu, J., Zhang, H., Yao, Z., Li, X., & Tang, J. (2019). Thermal desorption of PCBs contaminated soil with calcium hydroxide in a rotary kiln. Chemosphere, 220, 1041–1046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.031
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China. (2018). Soil environmental quality risk control standard for soil contamination of development land (GB 36600–2018). https://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/fgbz/bz/bzwb/trhj/201807/t20180703_446027.shtml. (accessed on May 5, 2019)
Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China. (2019). Technical guidelines for risk assessment of soil contamination of land for construction (HJ 25.3–2019). http://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/fgbz/bz/bzwb/jcffbz/201912/t20191224_749893.shtml. (accessed on June 10, 2020)
Ministry of Environmental Protection of China. (2015). Soil and sediment - Determination of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) - Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (HJ 743–2015). http://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/fgbz/bz/bzwb/jcffbz/201505/t20150508_301345.shtml. (accessed on May 20, 2019)
Perez-Maldonado, I. N., Salazar, R. C., Ilizaliturri-Hernandez, C. A., Espinosa-Reyes, G., Perez-Vazquez, F. J., & Fernandez-Macias, J. C. (2014). Assessment of the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) levels in soil samples near an electric capacitor manufacturing industry in Morelos, Mexico. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A>Toxic/Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering, 49, 1244–1250. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2014.910037
Priya Ghosh, S., & Maiti, S. K. (2020). Evaluation of PAHs concentration and cancer risk assessment on human health in a roadside soil: A case study. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 26, 1042–1061. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1551052
Qin, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, J., Lu, Y., & Xu, Z. (2022). Emission of PAHs, PCBs, PBDEs and heavy metals in air, water and soil around a waste plastic recycling factory in an industrial park, Eastern China. Chemosphere, 294, 133734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133734
Reddy, A. V. B., Moniruzzaman, M., & Aminabhavi, T. M. (2019). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the environment: Recent updates on sampling, pretreatment, cleanup technologies and their analysis. Chemical Engineering Journal, 358, 1186–1207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.09.205
Rushneck, D. R., Beliveau, A., Fowler, B., Hamilton, C., Hoover, D., Kaye, K., Berg, M., Smith, T., Telliard, W. A., Roman, H., Ruder, E., & Ryan, L. (2004). Concentrations of dioxin-like PCB congeners in unweathered Aroclors by HRGC/HRMS using EPA Method 1668A. Chemosphere, 54, 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00664-7
Song, S., Xue, J., Lu, Y., Zhang, H., Wang, C., Cao, X., & Li, Q. (2018). Are unintentionally produced polychlorinated biphenyls the main source of polychlorinated biphenyl occurrence in soils? Environmental Pollution, 243, 492–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.09.027
Sun, J., Pan, L., Tsang, D. C. W., Zhan, Y., Liu, W., Wang, X., Zhu, L., & Li, X. (2016). Polychlorinated biphenyls in agricultural soils from the Yangtze River Delta of China: Regional contamination characteristics, combined ecological effects and human health risks. Chemosphere, 163, 422–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.08.038
Sun, Y., Wang, J., Guo, G., Li, H., & Jones, K. (2020). A comprehensive comparison and analysis of soil screening values derived and used in China and the UK. Environmental Pollution, 256, 113404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113404
Takasuga, T., Senthilkumar, K., Matsumura, T., Shiozaki, K., & Sakai, S.-I. (2006). Isotope dilution analysis of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in transformer oil and global commercial PCB formulations by high resolution gas chromatography–high resolution mass spectrometry. Chemosphere, 62, 469–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.04.034
The World Bank. (2013). Implementation completion and results report for China PCB management and disposal demonstration project. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/306781467986278658/China-Contaminated-Site-Management-Project. (accessed on June 3, 2021)
U. S. EPA. (2007). Method 3545A (SW-846): Pressurized fluid extraction (PFE). https://www.epa.gov/esam/method-3545a-sw-846-pressurized-fluid-extraction-pfe. (accessed on June 9, 2021)
U. S. EPA. (2014). Method 8270E (SW-846): Semivolatile organic compounds by gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry (GC/MS). https://www.epa.gov/esam/epa-method-8270e-sw-846-semivolatile-organic-compounds-gas-chromatographymass-spectrometry-gc. (accessed on June 9, 2021)
U. S. EPA. (2021a). Regional screening levels (RSLs) - Generic tables. https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-generic-tables. (accessed on June 9, 2021)
U. S. EPA. (2021b). Regional screening levels (RSLs) – User’s guide. https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-users-guide. (accessed on June 9, 2021)
Wang, H., & Chen, J. (2013). Modeling and assessment of polychlorinated biphenyls contamination in soil at a burial site of power capacitors. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 10, 1007–1018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-013-0181-8
Xiao, Q., Zong, Y., Malik, Z., & Lu, S. (2019). Source identification and risk assessment of heavy metals in road dust of steel industrial city (Anshan), Liaoning, Northeast China. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 26, 1359–1378. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1578946
Xu, C., Hu, J., Wu, J., Wei, B., Zhu, Z., Yang, L., Zhou, T., & Jin, J. (2020). Polychlorinated naphthalenes, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls in soils in an industrial park in Northwestern China: Levels, source apportionment, and potential human health risks. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 188, 109895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109895
Xu, C., Niu, L., Zou, D., Zhu, S., & Liu, W. (2019). Congener-specific composition of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in soil-air partitioning and the associated health risks. Science of the Total Environment, 684, 486–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.334
Yang, B., Xue, N., Ding, Q., Vogt, R. D., Zhou, L., Li, F., Wu, G., Zhang, S., Zhou, D., Liu, B., & Yan, Y. (2014). Polychlorinated biphenyls removal from contaminated soils using a transportable indirect thermal dryer unit: Implications for emissions. Chemosphere, 114, 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.03.131
Yang, B., Zhou, L., Xue, N., Li, F., Wu, G., Ding, Q., Yan, Y., & Liu, B. (2013). China action of “Cleanup Plan for Polychlorinated Biphenyls Burial Sites”: Emissions during excavation and thermal desorption of a capacitor-burial site. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 96, 231–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2013.06.026
Yang, X., Hu, J., Chen, W., Bu, T., & Jin, J. (2022). Atmospheric concentrations and sources of PCBs, PCNs, and PCDD/Fs near ranches on a steppe in North China. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.1c00351
Zhang, R., Han, D., Jiang, L., Zhong, M., Liang, J., Xia, T., & Zhao, Y. (2020). Derivation of site-specific remediation goals by incorporating the bioaccessibility of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with the probabilistic analysis method. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 384, 121239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121239
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by a grant from the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2019YFC1805600).
Funding
This study was supported by a grant from the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2019YFC1805600).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
YC: Conceptualization, data curation, and writing-original draft. YN: Validation, investigation, and data curation. GC: Investigation and resources. LZ: Data curation. XW: Data curation. WC: Funding acquisition. HH: Investigation. CZ: Data curation. JW: Supervision, data curation, and writing-review and editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cui, Y., Ning, Y., Chen, G. et al. Characteristics of Historical Underground Storage Sites of Capacitors Containing Polychlorinated Biphenyls. Water Air Soil Pollut 233, 89 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05562-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05562-4