Abstract
Stateless and without citizenship, Rohingya women face elevated risks of sexual and gender-based violence. Notably, there has been little empirical examination of societal reactions to victimized Rohingya women and perpetrators. To address this lacuna of research, this study examines, with a sample from India, the roles of anti-Rohingya statements and hostile sexism in victim-directed and perpetrator-directed reactions to the sexual assault of a Rohingya versus Indian woman. Participants scoring high on sexism who were exposed to anti-Rohingya statements were more likely to engage in negative victim-directed responding (e.g., blaming) and positive perpetrator-directed responding (e.g., sympathy) when the victim was Rohingya. Anti-Rohingya statements had no impact in the Indian victim condition. Among low sexism participants, reactions to anti-Rohingya statement exposure did not vary as a function of victim ethnicity. The results imply that a collateral consequence of anti-Rohingya refugee statements may be to advance a “climate of social tolerance” for sexual violence against Rohingya women and embolden potential perpetrators, especially among majority group members who strongly endorse sexist beliefs. The findings underscore the need for greater societal awareness of the insidious effects of anti-refugee statements for Rohingya women, which could hopefully facilitate the development of effective interventions.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akhtar, C. (2013). Eve teasing as a form of violence against women: A case study of district Srinagar, Kashmir. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 5, 168–178. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJSA2013.0445.
Anagol-McGinn, P. (1994). Sexual harassment in India: A case study of eve-teasing in historical perspective. In C. Brant, & Y. L. Too (Eds.), Rethinking sexual harassment (pp. 220–234). Pluto.
Babu, B. V., & Kar, S. K. (2009). Domestic violence against women in eastern India: A population-based study on prevalence and related issues. BMC Public Health, 9, Article 129. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-129.
Balliet, D., Wu, J., & De Dreu, C. K. (2014). Ingroup favoritism in cooperation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1556–1581. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037737.
Betz, D. E., Deegan, K., & Gomes, A. (2023). Men’s hostile sexism predicts skepticism of sexual assault science. Psychology of Women Quarterly. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843231215373.
Bijaburker, H. (2017). Rohingya Muslims in India – from refugees to a security threat. OPIndia. https://www.opindia.com/2017/03/rohingya-muslims-in-india-from-refugees-to-a-security-threat.
Blackmore, R., Boyle, J. A., Fazel, M., Ranasinha, S., Gray, K. M., Fitzgerald, G., Misso, M., & Gibson-Helm, M. (2020). The prevalence of mental illness in refugees and asylum seekers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Medicine, 17, e1003337. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003337.
Brown, A. L., Horton, J., & Guillory, A. (2018). The impact of victim alcohol consumption and perpetrator use of force on perceptions in an acquaintance rape vignette. Violence and Victims, 33(1), 40–52. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-16-00099.
Chae, J., Kim, K., Kim, Y., Lim, G., Kim, D., & Kim, H. (2022). Ingroup favoritism overrides fairness when resources are limited. Scientific Reports, 12, 4560. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08460-1.
Chandler, J., & Shapiro, D. (2016). Conducting clinical research using crowdsourced convenience samples. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12, 53–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815093623.
Cheng, H. L., Kim, H. Y., Tsong, Y., & Joel Wong, Y. (2021). COVID-19 anti-asian racism: A tripartite model of collective psychosocial resilience. American Psychologist, 76(4), 627–642. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000808.
Crandall, C. S., Eshleman, A., & O’Brien, L. T. (2002). Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 359–378. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.3.359.
Cross, E. J., & Overall, N. C. (2019). Women experience more serious relationship problems when male partners endorse hostile sexism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(5), 1022–1041. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2560.
Dhillon, M., & Bakaya, S. (2014). Street harassment: A qualitative study of the experiences of young women in Delhi. SAGE Open, 4(3), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014543786.
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004). Aversive racism. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 36, pp. 1–52). Academic.
Durán, M., Megías, J. L., & Moya, M. (2018). Male peer support to hostile sexist attitudes influences rape proclivity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(14), 2180–2196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515624212.
Efferson, C., Lalive, R., & Fehr, E. (2008). The coevolution of cultural groups and ingroup favoritism. Science, 321(5897), 1844–1849. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155805.
Ekehammar, B., & Akrami, N. (2003). The relation between personality and prejudice: A variable- and a person-centered approach. European Journal of Personality, 17(6), 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.494.
Fauchon, C., Faillenot, I., Perrin, A. M., Borg, C., Pichot, V., Chouchou, F., Garcia-Larrea, L., & Peyron, R. (2017). Does an observer’s empathy influence my pain? Effect of perceived empathetic or unempathetic support on a pain test. European Journal of Neuroscience, 46(10), 2629–2637. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.13701.
Fortin, I., Guay, S., Lavoie, V., Boisvert, J. M., & Beaudry, M. (2012). Intimate partner violence and psychological distress among young couples: Analysis of the moderating effect of social support. Journal of Family Violence, 27, 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-011-9402-4.
Gangoli, G. (2007). Indian feminisms: Law, patriarchies, and violence in India. Ashgate Publishing.
Gineste, C., & Savun, B. (2019). Introducing POSVAR: A dataset on refugee-related violence. Journal of Peace Research, 56(1), 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433188114.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56(2), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.109.
Goldsmith, B., & Beresford, M. (2018, June 26). Exclusive: India most dangerous country for women with sexual violence rife—Global poll. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-women-dangerous-poll-exclusive-idUSKBN1JM01X.
Gracia, E., & Herrero, J. (2007). Perceived neighborhood social disorder and attitudes toward reporting domestic violence against women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(6), 737–752. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507300755.
Gravelin, C. R., Biernat, M., & Bucher, C. E. (2018). Blaming the victim of acquaintance rape: Individual, situational, and sociocultural factors. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2422. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02422.
Green, L., McHale, T., Mishori, R., Kaljee, L., & Akter Chowdhury, S. (2022). Most of the cases are very similar: Documenting and corroborating conflict-related sexual violence affecting Rohingya refugees. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13038-7.
Grubb, A. R., & Turner, E. (2012). Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity and substance use on victim blaming. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(5), 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.06.002.
Hanif, Q., Kulig, T., Cullen, F., & Fisher, B. (2021). Rape myth acceptance among college students in India: Prevalence and predictors in a changing context. Deviant Behavior, 42(8), 1043–1066. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1720935.
Haokip, T. (2021). From ‘Chinky’ to ‘Coronavirus’: Racism against Northeast indians during the Covid-19 pandemic. Asian Ethnicity, 22(2), 353–373. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631369.2020.1763161.
Hawkins, M. M., Schmitt, M. E., Adebayo, C. T., Weitzel, J., Olukotun, O., Christensen, A. M., Ruiz, A. M., Gilman, K., Quigley, K., Dressel, A., & Mkandawire-Valhmu, L. (2021). Promoting the health of refugee women: A scoping literature review incorporating the social ecological model. International Journal for Equity in Health, 20(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-021-01387-5.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford.
Hill, S., & Marshall, T. C. (2018). Beliefs about sexual assault in India and Britain are explained by attitudes toward women and hostile sexism. Sex Roles, 79, 421–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0880-6.
Hockett, J. M., & Saucier, D. A. (2015). A systematic literature review of rape victims versus rape survivors: Implications for theory, research, and practice. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 25, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.07.003.
Huang, Y., Sibley, C. G., & Osborne, D. (2020). Breast is best, but where? Hostile sexism underlies men’s opposition to breastfeeding in public. Journal of Social Issues, 76(2), 219–238. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12379.
Hyde, J. S., Bigler, R. S., Joel, D., Tate, C. C., & van Anders, S. M. (2019). The future of sex and gender in psychology: Five challenges to the gender binary. American Psychologist, 74(2), 171–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000307.
Igarashi, A. (2021). Hate begets hate: Anti-refugee violence increases anti-refugee attitudes in Germany. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44(11), 1914–1934. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1802499.
Inzaman, Q. (2022, April 29). India abandons the Rohingyas. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/04/29/india-rohingya-refugees-myanmar-deportation.
Islam, M. M., Khan, M. N., & Rahman, M. M. (2022). Intimate partner abuse among rohingya women and its relationship with their abilities to reject husbands’ advances to unwanted sex. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(13–14), NP11315–NP11332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260521991299.
Jäckle, S., & König, P. D. (2018). Threatening events and anti-refugee violence: An empirical analysis in the wake of the refugee crisis during the years 2015 and 2016 in Germany. European Sociological Review, 34(6), 728–743. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcy038.
Jagori (2011). Safe cities free of violence against women and girls initiative: A draft strategic framework for women’s safety in Delhi 2010. New Delhi. http://jagori.org/wp-content/uploads/2006/01/Strategic_Framework.pdf.
Jain, B. (2021, July 20). Illegal Rohingya immigrants pose threat to national security, says government. Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/illegal-rohingya-immigrants-pose-threat-to-national-security-says-government/articleshow/84594622.cms.
Johnson, K. K. P. (1995). Attributions about date rape: Impact of clothing, sex, money spent, date type, and perceived similarity. Family and Consumer Science Research Journal, 23, 292–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077727X95233004.
Johnson, K. K. P., Ju, H. W., & Wu, J. (2016). Young adults’ inferences surrounding an alleged sexual assault: Alcohol consumption, gender, dress, and appearance schematicity. Clothing Textiles Research Journal, 34(2), 127–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887302X15624550.
Johnson, J. D., Lecci, L., & Dovidio, J. (2020a). Black intragroup empathic responding to police interracial violence: Effects of victim stereotypicality and blacks’ racial identification. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(5), 579–587. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619859316.
Johnson, J. D., Raj, N., Smith-Enoe, S., & Lecci, L. (2020b). Receiving leniency after hurting a female norm-violator: The mediating role of victim and harm-doer empathy. Violence against Women, 26(10), 1164–1187. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219861149.
Johnson, J. D., Prasad, M., Sattler, D. N., Presterudstuen, G. H., Pacilli, M. G., & Pagliaro, S. (2022). Fijian reactions to transgender-directed workplace mistreatment: The moderating role of the victim’s group identification. Sexuality & Culture, 26, 1148–1166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-021-09936-4.
Johnson, J., Smith-Enoe, S., Luo, S., Pacilli, M. G., & Pagliaro, S. (2023). Intimate partner violence in Fiji: How the perpetrator is rewarded for perceived victim suffering. Violence against Women, 29(2), 134–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012211070311.
Kaiser, C. R., & Pratt-Hyatt, J. S. (2009). Distributing prejudice unequally: Do whites direct their prejudice towards strongly identified minorities? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 432–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012877.
Kalokhe, A., Del Rio, C., Dunkle, K., Stephenson, R., Metheny, N., Paranjape, A., & Sahay, S. (2017). Domestic violence against women in India: A systematic review of a decade of quantitative studies. Global Public Health, 12(4), 498–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2015.1119293.
Kimuna, S. R., Djamba, Y. K., Ciciurkaite, G., & Cherukuri, S. (2013). Domestic violence in India: Insights from the 2005–2006 national family health survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(4), 773–807. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605124558s.
Leander, N. P., Kreienkamp, J., Agostini, M., Stroebe, W., Gordijn, E. H., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2020). Biased hate crime perceptions can reveal supremacist sympathies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(32), 19072–19079. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1916883117.
Lee, J., Pomeroy, E. C., & Bohman, T. M. (2007). Intimate partner violence and psychological health in a sample of Asian and caucasian women: The roles of social support and coping. Journal of Family Violence, 22(8), 709–720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9119-6.
Lehmann, M. C., & Masterson, D. T. (2020). Does aid reduce anti-refugee violence? Evidence from Syrian refugees in Lebanon. American Political Science Review, 114(4), 1335–1342. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000349.
Li, Z., & Zheng, Y. (2022). Blame of rape victims and perpetrators in China: The role of gender, rape myth acceptance, and situational factors. Sex Roles, 87(3–4), 167–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01309-x.
Majeed, S. (2019). Islamophobia and the mental health of Rohingya refugees. In H. S. Moffic, J. Peteet, A. Z. Hankir, & R. Awaad (Eds.), Islamophobia and psychiatry (pp. 277–291). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00512-2_24.
Massey, M. (2020, July 16). Silent and complicit: Chattanooga pastors call on White Americans to address racism. Chattanooga Times Free Press. https://www.timesfreepress.com/news/local/story/2020/jun/16/racism-service/52548.
McDonald, R. I., & Crandall, C. S. (2015). Social norms and social influence. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 3, 147–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.04.006.
Milton, A. H., Rahman, M., Hussain, S., Jindal, C., Choudhury, S., Akter, S., Ferdousi, S., Mouly, T. A., Hall, J., & Efird, J. T. (2017). Trapped in statelessness: Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(8), Article 942. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080942.
Monroe, K. R. (2008). Cracking the code of genocide: The moral psychology of rescuers, bystanders and Nazis during the Holocaust. Political Psychology, 29(5), 699–673. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00661.x.
Naher, L., Parvin, M., & Jatra, M. (2021). Psychosocial impact of rape: A qualitative study of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Psychology, 23, 31–46.
Newman, B., Merolla, J. L., Shah, S., Lemi, D. C., Collingwood, L., & Ramakrishnan, S. K. (2021). The Trump effect: An experimental investigation of the emboldening effect of racially inflammatory elite communication. British Journal of Political Science, 51(3), 1138–1159. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123419000590.
Nieder, C., Muck, C., & Kärtner, J. (2019). Sexual violence against women in India: Daily life and coping strategies of young women in Delhi. Violence against Women, 25(14), 1717–1738. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218824056.
Nordby, L. (2018). Gender-based violence in the refugee camps in Cox Bazar: A case study of Rohingya women’s and girls’ exposure to gender-based violence. [Master’s thesis, Uppsala University]. http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1219686/FULLTEXT01.pdf.
Odyuo, B. (2021). Racial discrimination against northeast indians in times of Covid-19. International Journal of Human Rights and Constitutional Studies, 8(3), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJHRCS.2021.116570.
Onoma, A. K. (2013). Anti-refugee violence and African politics. Cambridge University Press.
Peer, E., Vosgerau, J., & Acquisti, A. (2014). Reputation as a sufficient condition for data quality on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Behavior Research Methods, 46(4), 1023–1031. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0434-y.
Perry, B., Akca, D., Karakus, F., & Bastug, M. F. (2020). Planting hate speech to harvest hatred: How does political hate speech fuel hate crimes in Turkey? International Journal for Crime Justice and Social Democracy, 9(4), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v9i4.1514.
Phillimore, J., Pertek, S., Akyuz, S., Darkal, H., Hourani, J., McKnight, P., Ozcurumez, S., & Taal, S. (2022). We are forgotten: Forced migration, sexual and gender-based violence, and coronavirus disease-2019. Violence against Women, 28(9), 2204–2230. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801221103094.
Piazza, J. A. (2020). Politician hate speech and domestic terrorism. International Interactions, 46(3), 431–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2020.1739033.
Qadri, H. (2022, April 6). India begins deporting Rohingya refugees. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2022/04/india-begins-deporting-rohingya-refugees.
Rex, J. (2020, July 15). Are you complicit in systemic racism? Here’s how to change. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnrex/2020/07/15/ive-been-complicit-in-systemic-racism-heres-what-im-doing-to-change/#153eded05078.
Romero-Sánchez, M., Krahé, B., Moya, M., & Megías, J. L. (2018). Alcohol-related victim behavior and rape myth acceptance as predictors of victim blame in sexual assault cases. Violence against Women, 24(9), 1052–1069. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801217727372.
Roupetz, S., Garbern, S., Michael, S., Bergquist, H., Glaesmer, H., & Bartels, S. A. (2020). Continuum of sexual and gender-based violence risks among Syrian refugee women and girls in Lebanon. BMC Women’s Health, 20(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-01009-2.
Sambo, C., Howard, M., Kopelman, M., Williams, S., & Fotopoulou, A. (2010). Knowing you care: Effects of perceived empathy and attachment style on pain perception. Pain, 151, 687–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2010.08.035.
Shi, X., & Zheng, Y. (2022). Hostile and benevolent sexism and attitudes toward establishing consent among Chinese men: The detrimental role of token resistance beliefs and binge drinking. Sex Roles, 87(1–2), 52–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01298-x.
Staub, E. (2002). The psychology of bystanders, perpetrators, and heroic helpers. In L. Newman & R. Erber (Eds.), Understanding genocide: The social psychology of the Holocaust (pp. 11–42). Oxford.
Toplu-Demirtaş, E., Öztemür, G., & Fincham, F. D. (2022). Perceptions of dating violence: Assessment and antecedents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(1 – 2), NP48–NP75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520914558.
Tripathi, K., Borrion, H., & Belur, J. (2017). Sexual harassment of students on public transport: An exploratory study in Lucknow, India. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 19(3), 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41300-017-0029-0.
UNHCR (2019). What is a refugee? United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. https://www.unrefugees.org/refugee-facts/what-is-a-refugee.
Vallejo-Martín, M., Sancha, S., A., & Canto, J. M. (2021). Refugee women with a history of trauma: Gender vulnerability in relation to post-traumatic stress disorder. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094806.
Winter, N. J. (2023). Hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, and American elections. Politics & Gender, 19(2), 427–456. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X22000010.
Zick, A., Wolf, C., Küpper, B., Davidov, E., Schmidt, P., & Heitmeyer, W. (2008). The syndrome of group-focused enmity: The interrelation of prejudices tested with multiple cross-sectional and panel data. Journal of Social Issues, 64(2), 363–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00566.x.
Žukauskienė, R., Kaniušonytė, G., Bergman, L. R., Bakaitytė, A., & Kunevičienė, Truskauskaitė, I. (2019). The role of social support in identity processes and post-traumatic growth: A study of victims of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(15–16), 7599 – 7624. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519836785.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate
The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at the host university (protocol #4747EX22). Participants read an information sheet about the study and gave informed consent.
Competing Interests
The authors have no competing interests to report with regard to the content of this article.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Johnson, J., Sattler, D.N., Roberts, G. et al. Sexual Assault of a Rohingya Woman: Anti-Rohingya Statements Embolden Those High in Sexism to Report Anti-Victim and Pro-Perpetrator Reactions. Sex Roles 90, 527–538 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-024-01464-3
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-024-01464-3