Skip to main content
Log in

The Influence of Cultural and Generational Differences on the Ministry Experience of Chinese American Church Leaders

  • Published:
Pastoral Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This qualitative study explored the influence of cultural and generational differences on the ministry experience of fourteen Chinese American male church leaders. Specifically, this study examined how differences in communication style, view of authority, level of acculturation, and expectations of the church could create conflict within the church setting. This study also provided insight into the types of problems these church leaders and church members faced as a result of cultural and generational conflict as well as solutions they found in response to that conflict. Taken together, these findings not only address the literature gap regarding this understudied group of individuals, but they also have implications for more effective ministry in a multicultural church setting.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bond, M. H. (1993). Emotions and their expression in Chinese culture. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 17(4), 245–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boutakidis, I. P., Chao, R. K., & Rodríguez, J. L. (2011). The role of adolescents’ native language fluency on quality of communication and respect for parents in Chinese and Korean immigrant families. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2(2), 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, W. C., Osman, M. M. B., Tong, E. M. W., & Tan, D. (2011). Self-construal and subjective wellbeing in two ethnic communities in Singapore. Psychology, 2(2), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2011.22011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ChenFeng, J., Knudson-Martin, C., & Nelson, T. (2015). Intergenerational tension, connectedness, and separateness in the lived experience of first and second generation Chinese American Christians. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal, 37(2), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-015-9335-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiang, W.-T. (2012). The suppression of emotional expression in interpersonal context. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 43(3), 657–680.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung, Y. B., & Chou, D. S. (1999). American-born and overseas-born Chinese Americans: Counseling implications. In K. S. Ng (Ed.), Counseling Asian families from a systems perspective (pp. 145–158). Alexandria: American Counseling Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures of developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dong, X., Chang, E.-S., Wong, E., & Simon, M. (2012). The perceptions, social determinants, and negative health outcomes associated with depressive symptoms among US Chinese older adults. The Gerontologist, 52(5), 650–663. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnr126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ebaugh, H. R., & Chafetz, J. S. (2000). Religion and the new immigrants. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological bulletin, 108(2), 233–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fong, M. (1998). Chinese immigrants’ perceptions of semantic dimensions of direct/indirect communication in intercultural compliment interactions with North Americans. Howard Journal of Communications, 9(3), 245–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/106461798247014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, G., Ting-Toomey, S., & Gudykunst, W. B. (1996). Chinese communication processes. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 280–293). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gudykunst, W. B. (2001). Asian American ethnicity and communication. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gudykunst, W. B., Ting-Toomey, S., & Chua, E. (1988). Sage series in interpersonal communication (Vol. 8. Culture and interpersonal communication). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City: Anchor Books/Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hara, K., & Kim, M.-S. (2004). The effect of self-construals on conversational indirectness. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2003.12.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hellweg, S. A., Samovar, L. A., & Shaw, L. (1991). Cultural variations in negotiation styles. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader (6th ed., pp. 185–192). Belmont: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho, D. Y.-F., & Chiu, C.-Y. (1994). Component ideas of individualism, collectivism, and social organization: An application in the study of Chinese culture. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, Ç. Kâğitçibaşi, S.-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 137–156). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Immanuel Chinese Christian Network. (2016). Overseas Church Bible Study Fellowship Directory. http://www.immanuel.net/overseaschurch/.

  • Kim, B. K., Li, L. C., & Ng, G. F. (2005). The Asian American Values Scale—Multidimensional: Development, reliability, and validity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 11(3), 187–201. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.11.3.187.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, B. S. K. (2011). Counseling Asian Americans. Belmont: Cengage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, B. S. K., Atkinson, D. R., & Umemoto, D. (2001). Asian cultural values and the counseling process: Current knowledge and directions for future research. The Counseling Psychologist, 29(4), 570–603. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000001294006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S., Wang, Y., Chen, Q., Shen, Y., & Hou, Y. (2015). Parent-child acculturation profiles as predictors of Chinese American adolescents’ academic trajectories. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 44(6), 1263–1274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0131-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, S., Karasawa, M., & Mesquita, B. (2004). Collective and personal processes in regulating emotions: Emotion and self in Japan and the United States. In P. Philippot & R. S. Feldman (Eds.), The regulation of emotion (pp. 251–273). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwan, C. M. L., Chun, K. M., & Chesla, C. A. (2011). Cultural norms shaping research group interviews with Chinese American immigrants. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024184.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lam, A. G., & Zane, N. W. S. (2004). Ethnic Differences in Coping with Interpersonal Stressors: A Test of Self-Construals as Cultural Mediators. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(4), 446–459. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022104266108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, E. (1989). Assessment and treatment of Chinese-American immigrant families. Journal of Psychotherapy & the Family, 6(1–2), 99–122. https://doi.org/10.1300/J287v06n01_06.

  • Ling, S., & Cheuk, C. (1999). The “Chinese” way of doing things: Perspectives on American-born Chinese and the Chinese church in North America. Phillipsburg: P and R Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liou, C., & Shenk, D. (2016). A case study of exploring older Chinese immigrants’ social support within a Chinese church community in the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 31(3), 293–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-016-9292-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, R. (1992). The role of unofficial intermediaries in interpersonal conflicts in the Chinese culture. Communication Quarterly, 40(3), 269–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markus, R. H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markus, R. H., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(4), 420–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610375557.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, H. H., Messe, L. A., & Stollak, G. E. (1999). Toward a more complex understanding of acculturation and adjustment. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(1), 5–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palinkas, L. A. (1982). Ethnicity, identity and mental health: The use of rhetoric in an immigrant Chinese church. Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology, 5(3), 235–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, I. J. K., Sulaiman, C., Schwartz, S. J., Kim, S. Y., Ham, L. S., & Zamboanga, B. L. (2011). Self-construals and social anxiety among Asian American college students: Testing emotion suppression as a mediator. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, J., Norasakkunkit, V., & Kashima, Y. (2017). Cross-cultural comparison of self-construal and well-being between Japan and South Korea: The role of self-focused and other-focused relational selves. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01516.

  • Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. (2012). Asian Americans: A mosaic of faiths. Pew Forum. http://www.pewforum.org/2012/07/19/asian-americans-a-mosaic-of-faiths-overview/. Accessed 11 December 2018.

  • Poyrazli, S., Kavanaugh, P. R., Baker, A., & Al-Timimi, N. (2004). Social support and demographic correlates of acculturative stress in international students. Journal of College Counseling, 7(1), 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2004.tb00261.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Culture matters: National value cultures, sources, and consequences. In R. S. Wyer, C. Chiu, & Y. Hong (Eds.), Understanding culture: Theory, research, and application (pp. 127–150). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, L., & Lynch, S. (2013). The pursuit of happiness in China: Individualism, collectivism, and subjective well-being during China’s economic and social transformation. Social Indicators Research, 114(2), 441–451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0154-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tawa, J., & Suyemoto, K. L. (2010). The influence of race and power on self-construal in bicultural Asian Americans. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1(4), 275–289. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ting-Toomey, S., Gao, G., Trubisky, P., Yang, Z., Kim, H. S., Lin, S.-L., & Nishida, T. (1991). Culture, face maintenance, and styles of handling interpersonal conflicts: A study in five cultures. International Journal of Conflict Management, 2(4), 275–296. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb022702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism & collectivism. Boulder: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trubisky, P., Ting-Toomey, S., & Lin, S. (1991). The influence of individualism-collectivism and self-monitoring on conflict styles. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(91)90074-Q.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsang, W. (2015). Integration of immigrants: The role of ethnic churches. Journal of International Migration & Integration, 16(4), 1177–1193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-014-0380-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, M.-S., Ho, W.-S., & Lam, C.-M. (2005). The use of supervisory authority in Chinese cultural context. Administration in Social Work, 29(4), 51–68. https://doi.org/10.1300/J147v29n0404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). The Asian population: 2010. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf.

  • Wang, Y., & Yang, F. (2006). More than evangelical and ethnic: The ecological factor in Chinese conversion to Christianity in the United States. Sociology of Religion, 67(2), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/67.2.179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, M., Worthy, P., Fung, J., & Chen, E. (2017). A qualitative analysis of the experience of female Chinese American church leaders: Associations with gender role, culture, and work-family balance. Pastoral Psychology, 66(5), 657–674. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-017-0773-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Y., Farver, J. A. M., Schwartz, D., & Chang, L. (2004). Social networks and aggressive behaviour in Chinese children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(5), 401–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250444000090.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, X., Zhou, Z., Fan, G., Yu, Y., & Peng, J. (2016). Collective and individual self-esteem mediate the effect of self-construals on the subjective well-being of undergraduate students in China. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 11(1), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-014-9362-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yum, J. O. (1988). The impact of Confucianism on interpersonal relationships and communication patterns in East Asia. Communication Monographs, 55(4), 374–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637758809376178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, G., & Zhan, J. H. (2009). Beyond the Bible and the cross: A social and cultural analysis of Chinese elders’ participation in Christian congregations in the United States. Sociological Spectrum, 29(2), 295–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170802584526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maria S. Wong.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Goranson, S., Wong, M.S. & Fung, J. The Influence of Cultural and Generational Differences on the Ministry Experience of Chinese American Church Leaders. Pastoral Psychol 69, 11–28 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-019-00890-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-019-00890-5

Keywords

Navigation