Abstract
“Eastern Europe,” as a geopolitical term coined in the Cold War, not only refers to a regional demarcation, but also carries specific political, historical and cultural connotations, especially in a Chinese context. The political situation, historical experience and cultural character of East-European countries were shared and could easily be understood by the Chinese, who have gained their national consciousness and independence as well as aspired for modernity by fighting the oppression and invasion of the foreign powers, and through learning from and resisting the Western empires at the same time. East-European literature has, therefore, exerted particular influence on modern Chinese literature at the time of its transition from the traditional. This article attempts to reveal the political, geographical, historical and cultural similarities shared by East-European countries and their significance to modern China. Then it makes a survey of the introduction, reception and influence of East-European literature in China, taking Petőfi Sándor, Bertolt Brecht and Milan Kundera as examples to show the significance of East-European literature to modern Chinese literature.
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Notes
If Herta Müller, born in Rumania and living in East Germany who won the Nobel Prize in 2009, can be regarded as a East-European writer, we would have eight Nobel Laureates from Eastern Europe. Henryk Sienkiewicz (in 1905), Władysław Reymont (in 1924), Czesław Miłosz (in 1980) and Wisława Szymborska (in 1996) are from Poland; Ivo Andrić (in 1961) is from Serbia; Jaroslav Seifert (in 1984) is from Czechoslovakia; Imre Kertész (in 2002) is from Hungary.
I completed a study in the introduction of East-European literature in China in the first part of the twentieth century when I co-authored in Chinese Zhongguo xiandai fanyi wenxueshi [The History of Translated Literature in Modern China: 1898–1949] (Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004) and another study in the introduction in the second part of the twentieth century when I co-worked on the project of “The Literary Relationship between Eastern Europe and China” with professors such as Ding Chao. The survey is mainly based on literary journals, literary section of important newspapers and translation in book form. I tried my best to collect the materials concerning the translation, introduction and study of East-European literature in China, and more materials are hopefully to be found in the future.
The spread of the Christian culture in China began at the beginning of seventeenth century by Jesuits, among whom the East-Europeans were also the earliest to spread East-European culture in China. Cf. Ding Chao 2008, pp. 173–179.
Cf. Xiuxiang xiaoshuo [Illustrated Fiction], Shanghai: Commercial Press, No. 68–69, 1906.
No. 10 of Vol. 12 of Fiction Monthly in October 1921 entitled “The Special Issue for the Literature of the Persecuted Nations” published translated works from eight countries including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Ukraine.
They include such writers and translators as Wang Luyan, Li Jiye, Wang Tongzhao, Wei Suyuan, Ye Lingfeng, Ba Jin, Zhao Jingshen, Lou Shiyi, Cao Jinghua, Shi Zhecun, Du Heng, Hu Yuzhi, Zeng Xubai, Zhong Xianmin, Bai Mang, Xu Xiacun, Sun Yong, Feng Xuefeng, Zhou Libo, Zhou Yang, Hu Sheng, Li Liewen, Jiao Juying, Qin Zihao and Ye Junjian.
Journal Wenxue [Literature] was created in Shanghai July 1933 and edited collectively by Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Ye Shengtao and Yu Dafu. Most of the editors actively advocated or participated in the introduction and translation of the literature of the weak nations. “Special Issue Devoted to the Literature of Weak Nations” was published in No. 5, Vol. 2, May 1, 1934. Yiwen [Translation Magazine] was created on May 1, 1934 at Lu Xun’s suggestion. The nominal editor is Huang Yuan, but it was actually edited by Lu Xun with Mao Dun’s support.
The East-European countries concerned here were Armenia, Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania and Bulgaria.
When Lu Xun died, the tradition of translation was carried on among the writers of the next generation. In 1936, Ruoxiao minzu xiaoshuoxuan [Selected Stories by Writers from Weak Nations] translated by Xu Maoyong, Li Liewen and others was published by Shanghai shenghuo shudian (Shanghai Life Book Store). The following year witnessed the publication of Ruoguo xiaoshuo mingzhu [Masterpieces by Writers from Weak Nations] edited by Lu Yan and translated by such writers as Wang Luyan, Ai Wu, Shi Zhecun, Bian Zhilin and Zhao Jingshen and more professional translators such as Sun Yong and Zhong Xianmin. After the founding of The People’s Republic of China in 1949, at Mao Dun’s suggestion, Traslation Magazine resumed its publication in 1953, and was renamed Shijie wenxue (World Literature) in 1959. Up to now, it has been the most important journal translating foreign literature in China.
This list was made by Ding Chao (2008, p. 187).
During the 17 years after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, many East-European movies were translated into Chinese and produced great social influence when played in China where movie industry was yet underdeveloped. For examples, Rumanian movie Valurile Dunării (1960) and Zile fierbinţi (1975), Yugoslavian movie Valter brani Sarajevo (1972) and Most (1977) were very popular at that time. As a direct visual representation, the movies presented to the Chinese audience the history and reality of the East-European countries, which was even more direct and wider in shaping national consciousness and world view of the People’s Republic of China.
Henryk Sienkiewicz’s historical novel Krzyzacy translated by Chen Guangshang was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 1978, Quo Vadis translated by Shi Heng was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 1980, and The Selected Stories by Henryk Sienkiewicz translated by Chen Guangshang was published by Jiangsu People Press in 1979. Therefore all the works of the famous Polish writer were translated into Chinese.
Migjeni. Të birtë e shekullit të ri. Trans. Xiao Man. People’s Literature Press, 1978; Nikola Yonkov Vaptsarov. Selected Poetry by Nikola Yonkov Vaptsarov. Trans. Zhou Xiliang, Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1978; George Coşbuc. Selected Poetry by George Coşbuc. Trans. Feng Zhicheng, People’s Literature Press, 1979; Marin Preda. Delirul. Trans. Lu Ren, Foreign Literature Press, 1979; Ivo Andric. Na Drini ć ćuprija. Trans. Zhou Wenyan and Li Xiongfei, People’s Literature Press, 1979; Jaroslav Hašek. Osudy dobrého vojka švejka za svĕtové války. Trans. Xing Can, Foreign Literature Press, 1983; Ethel Lilian Voynich. Reportáž psaná na oprátce. Trans. Jiang Chengjun, People’s Literature Press, 1985.
Six-volume Works by Petőfi. Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1996, 1997. There were six books of Petőfi studies and his biographies.
Shen Zemin (1902–1985), Mao Dun (Shen Yanbing)’s younger brother, was a revolutionist who died in the prime of his time. Sun Yong (1902–1983), once a postman, became a professional translator. He made acquaintance with Lu Xun when translating East-European literature from Esperanto. Qin Zihao (1919–1963) and Feng Zhi (1905–1993) are both famous poets. Zhao Jingshen (1902–1985) is a well known scholar and writer. Wang Fangren (1904–?), a professional translator, was known for his pseudonym Mei Chuan. Lü Jian (1919–) is a contemporary poet. Xing Wansheng (1930–), Fei Bai (1929–) and Feng Zhisheng (1935–) are all translators of Hungarian literature. Yin Fu (1910–1931) was also known as Xu Zuhua, Xu Bai, Xu Wenya and Bai Mang.
Chinese translation was “Shengming cheng baogui,/Aiqing jia genggao/Ruo wei ziyou gu/Erzhe jie ke pao”. It was done by Yin Fu from German and published after his death when Lu Xun cited it in his writing. The poem’s widespread influence can be seen from the number of its Chinese versions. As far as I know, it was translated by at least eight well known translators such as Zhou Zuoren, Mao Dun, Sun Yong, Yin Fu, Xing Wansheng, Lü Jian and Fei Bai. Cf. Song Binghui 2010.
Chinese Communist official newspaper Jiefang ribao [Liberation Daily] published “A Case of Betrayal” translated by Tian Lan from August 24 to 26, 1941. Chinese Communist official newspaper of Changjiang Bureau Xinhua ribao [Xinhua Daily] also published this “short anti-fascist drama” October 13–16, 1941 and another short anti-fascist drama “Two Bakers” translated by Bao Mao on August 6, 1942. Both dramas are taken from Fear and Misery of the Third Reich. Li Yan published a long article “Zhanqian oumei wenxue de dongxiang jiqi daibiao zuojia” [Orientation and Representative Writers of Prewar European and American Literature] in Zhongguo wenxue [Chinese Literature] founded in Beijing 1944 and edited by Shen Qiwu, from No. 8 to No. 11, Vol. 1, and devoted one section to Brecht, claiming that Brecht was known as “a satirist of civil society”. Brecht’s translation in Yan’an and Chongqing was supported by the Chinese Communist Party and his translation in Beijing was done by an ex-communist though it was not directly supported by Chinese Communist Party, which can show the ideological background of Brecht’s translation in China.
Ideological factors underlying Brecht’s translation were more evident with famous poet Bian Zhilin, Brecht’s another translator, who stated in his “Brecht’s Dramas” that he wrote this long article as a response to the “anti-Brecht movement” among “Euro-American reactionary critics”. According to him, Brecht’s dramatic achievement consisted in “their Marxist theme, their service for socialism and communism; their unique artistic characteristics when serving proletariat revolution.” The article was serialized in World Literature, Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 1962 and reprinted in book form by China Theater Press, 1980.
When Huang Zuolin studied in England in the 1930s, he read Brecht’s articles on China’s performance art and became interested in Brecht’s plays and theory. He was one of the earliest persons who paid attention to and accepted Brecht.
Brecht was deeply interested in Chinese philosophy, drama, especially Peking Opera, and poetry. He enjoyed reading Lao Zi, Zhuang Zi, Mo Zi and Confucius and translated poetry of Bai Juyi and Mao Zedong. After watching Peking Opera performed by Mei Lanfang, he came up with dramatic theories such as “defamiliarization” and “Verfremdung.” He put many Chinese elements such as virtuality and codification into his plays such as Der kaukasische Kreidekreis and Der gute Mensch von Sezuan. The former directly adopted the plot of Chinese traditional drama Baodaizhi zhizhuan huilanji [Baozhen’s Wise Story of Chalk Circle] by Li Xingdao in Yuan Dynasty, while the latter put Chinese place name in the title and adopted many practices of Chinese traditional drama such as “self-introduction to the audience” and “monologue with the face shadowed by one hand and in the presence of other characters.” Brecht’s experimental dramas combining Chinese and Western dramatic theory and practice played a go-between for Chinese traditional dramas and modern Western dramas. Chinese audience and dramatists were ready to accept his dramas for the familiar elements and obtained more confidence in Chinese dramas through his example. Cf. Yin Yu 2008.
As far as I know, there are 17 plays produced in China such as Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder, Der gute Mensch von Sezuan, Die Ausnahme und die Regel, Die Dreigroschenoper, Die Maßnahme, Der kaukasische Kreidekreis, Leben des Galilei, Mann ist Mann, Der aufhaltsame Aufstieg des Arturo Ui, Happy End, Schweyk im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Furcht und Elend des Dritten Reiches, Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti, Die Kleinbürgerhochzeit, Die Gesichte des Simone Machard, Der Jasager, der Neinsager and Baal.
Bulaixite xuanji [Selected Works of Brecht] edited by Feng Zhi and published by People’s Literature Press in 1959 contained Die Gewehre der Frau Carrar,Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder and Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti. Selected Works of Brecht (Vol. I and Vol. II) published by People’s Literature Press in 1980 contained Die Dreigroschenoper, Furcht und Elend des Dritten Reiches, Leben des Galilei, Der kaukasische Kreidekreis and Die Tage der Commune in addition to the three contained in 1959’s version.
Only in the first half of the 1980s many biographies and monographs were published. Cf. Fang Weigui, Bulaixite [Bertolt Brecht, 1898–1956]. Shenyang: Liaoning People Press, 1985; Klaus Volker. Bertolt Brecht. Trans. Li Jianming, Beijing: China Theater Press, 1986; Zhang Li ed. Bulaixite yanjiu [Bertolt Brecht Studies], Beijing: China Social Science Publishing House, 1984; Zuolin, Lun bulaixite de xiju yishu [Bertolt Brecht’s Dramatic Art], Beijing: China Theater Press, 1984.
Though there are a lot of daring sex description in Chinese classic literature, such as Chipozi zhuan [The Woman who Has Lost Her Mind] edited by Fu rong zhu ren and reviewed by Qing chi zi in an unidentifiable time, Jin pin mei by Lan ling xiao sheng in about 1573–1620, Rou pu tuan by Li Yu in 1633, the books were strictly suppressed by mainstream Confucianism. After the founding of People’s Republic of China, direct representation of sex in literature was labeled as morally corrupted. This trend came to its extremity in “Cultural Revolution” when only Yang ban xi [model plays] were permitted which contained 8 Beijing Opera plays such as Hong deng ji and Sha jia bang established after strict official censor. No love story existed in those works, let alone sex representation. Nevertheless the political prohibition of sex representation did not mean the asceticism in everyday life. The prohibition of sex representation did not relax until the 1980s and Kundera played an important role in the change.
Zhang Xianliang’s novella Nanren de yiban shi nüren [Half of Man Is Woman] and Wang Anyi’s short stories such as “Xiaocheng zhi lian” [Love in a Small Town], “Huangshan zhi lian” [Love in Wildness] and “Jinxiugu zhi lian” [Love in Beautiful Valley] and novella Gangshang de shiji [The Century on the Hill] are all well known works in the 1980s which deal with sex.
Comparatively speaking, Wang Anyi’s sex description leaves readers more space for imagination by combining Chinese ancient sex narrative and Western Christian tradition and naturalism. Her Gangshang de shiji [The Century on the Hill] narrates 7-day sex between the hero and heroine, referring metaphorically to the Christian Genesis and look into the human nature in the sense of Western religion.
Han Shaogong. Maqiao cidian [A Dictionary of Maqiao], Xiaoshuo shije [Fiction World]. No. 2, 1996; Writer Press, 1996. Its English version was published by Columbia University Press in August, 2003.
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Song, B. The reception of East-European literature in modern China. Neohelicon 38, 53–69 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11059-011-0093-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11059-011-0093-x