Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The influence of landscape relative to site and patch variables on primate distributions in the Colombian Llanos

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Landscape Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Context

Primates are an important component of biodiversity in tropical regions. However, many studies on the effects of habitat change on primates ignore the relative influence of landscape composition and configuration.

Objectives

This study addresses the question: how important are landscape-scale forest area and composition relative to patch-scale (1–1080 ha) and site-scale (transect of 1 km) habitat variables for the occupancy and abundance of four primate species in the Colombian Llanos.

Methods

Using a randomly stratified survey design, 81 fragments were surveyed for primate occupancy and abundance. We used zero-inflated models to test the relative influence of landscape-scale, patch-scale and site-scale variables on occupancy and abundance for each species. A 95% confidence set of models was constructed using the cumulative Akaike weight for each model and the relative importance of each set of variables calculated for each primate species.

Results

Occupancy was determined by a combination of site-scale, patch-scale and landscape-scale variables but this varied substantially among the primate species.

Conclusion

Our study highlights the importance of managing primates at a range of scales that considers the relative importance of site-, patch- and landscape-scale variables.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson J, Rowcliffe JM, Cowlishaw G (2007) Does the matrix matter? A forest primate in a complex agricultural landscape. Biol Conserv 135:212–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anzures-Dadda A, Manson RH (2007) Patch and landscape-scale effects on howler monkey distribution and abundance in rainforest fragments. Anim Conserv 10:69–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armenteras D, Rodriguez N, Renata J (2009) Are conservation strategies effective in avoiding the deforestation of the Colombian Guyana Shield? Biol Conserv 142:1411–1419

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armenteras D, Rodriguez N, Renata J (2013) Landscape dynamics in northwestern Amazonia: an assessment of pastures, fire and illicit crops as drivers of tropical deforestation. PLoS ONE 8(1):e54310. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.005431

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo-Rodriguez V, Cuesta-del Moral E, Mandujano S, Chapman CA, Reyna-Hurtado R, Fahrig L (2013a) Assessing habitat fragmentation effects on primates: the importance of evaluating questions at the correct scale. In: Marsh LK, Chapman CA (eds) Primates in fragments: ecology and conservation, developments in primatology: progress and prospects. Springer, New York, pp 13–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo-Rodriguez V, Dias PA (2010) Effects of habitat fragmentation and disturbance on howler monkeys: a review. Am J Primatol 72:1–16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo-Rodriguez V, Fahrig L (2014) Why is a landscape perspective important in studies of primates? Am J Primatol 76(10):901–909

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo-Rodriguez V, González-Perez IM, Garmendia A, Solà M, Estrada A (2013b) The relative impact of forest patch and landscape attributes on black howler populations in the fragmented Lacandona rainforest, Mexico. Landscape Ecol 28:1717–1727

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo-Rodriguez V, Mandujano S, Benitez-Malvido J (2008) Landscape Attributes Affecting Patch Occupancy by Howler Monkeys (Alouatta palliata mexicana) at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. Am J Primatol 70:69–77

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asensio N, Arroyo-Rodríguez V, Dunn J, Cristóbal-Azkarate J (2009) Conservation value of landscape supplementation for howler monkeys living in forest patches. Biotorpica 41:768–773

  • Beltran ML (2005) Estrategias ecológicas e influencia de la dominancia social en la adquisición de alimento en monos aulladores (Alouatta seniculus) en San Martin (Meta- Colombia). Undergraduate thesis, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

  • Benchimol M, Peres CA (2013) Anthropogenic modulators of species-area relationships in Neotropical primates: a continental-scale analysis of fragmented forest landscapes. Divers Distrib 19:1339–1352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjørnstad ON (2013) Spatial nonparametric covariance functions. http://onb.ent.psu.edu/onb1/R

  • Bjørnstad ON, Falck W (2001) Nonparametric spatial covariance functions: estimation and testing. Environ Ecol Stat 8:53–70

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair ME, Melnick DJ (2012) Scale-dependent effects of a heterogeneous landscape on genetic differentiation in the Central American squirrel monkey (Saimiri oerstedii). PLoS ONE 7(8):e43027. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043027

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burnham KP, Anderson DR (2002) Model selection and multimodel inference: a practical information-theoretic approach. Springer-Verlag, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Pinzón, X (2000) Un estudio ecológico de Saimiri sciureus y su asociación con Cebus apella, en la Macarena, Colombia. Undergraduate thesis. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia

  • Carretero-Pinzón X (2008) Efecto de la disponibilidad de recursos sobre la ecología y comportamiento de Saimiri sciureus albigena en fragmentos de bosque de galería, San Martín (Meta – Colombia). Masters thesis, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia

  • Carretero-Pinzón X (2013a) An eight-year life history of a primate community in the Colombian Llanos. In: Marsh LK, Chapman CA (eds) Primates in fragments: complexity and resilience, developments in primatology: progress and prospects. Springer, New York, pp 159–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Pinzón X (2013b) Population density and habitat availability of Callicebus ornatus, a Colombian endemic titi monkey. In: Defler TR, Stevenson PR, Bueno ML, Guzman DC (eds) Especies de Primates Colombianos en Peligro de Extinción. Panamericana, Bogotá, pp 160–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Pinzon X, Defler TR (2016) Primates and flooded forest in the Colombian Llanos. In: Barnett AA, Matsuda I, Nowak K (eds) Primates in flooded habitats: ecology and conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Pinzón X, Defler TR, McAlpine CA, Rhodes JR (2015) What do we know about the effect of patch size on primate species across life history traits? Biodivers Conserv. doi:10.1007/s10531-015-1028-z

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Pinzón X, Defler TR, Ruíz-García M (2013) Conservation status of Saimiri sciureus albigena, an endemic subspecies of squirrel monkeys. In: Defler TR, Stevenson PR, Bueno ML, Guzman DC (eds) Especies de Primates Colombianos en Peligro de Extinción. Editorial Panamericana, Bogotá, pp 243–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Pinzón X, Defler TR, Ruiz-García M (2016) How does the Colombian squirrel monkey cope with habitat fragmentation? strategies to survive in small fragments. In: Ruiz-García M, Shostell JM (eds) Evolutionary biology and conservation of the neotropical primates. Nova Publishers, New York, pp 491–506

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Pinzón X, Ruíz-García M, Defler TR (2009) The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Saimiri sciureus albigena: a squirrel monkey endemic to Colombia. Primate Conserv 24:59–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carretero-Pinzón X, Ruíz-García M, Defler TR (2010) Uso de cercas vivas como corredores biológicos por primates en los llanos orientales. In: Pereira V, Stevenson PR, Bueno ML, Nassar-Montoya F (eds) Primatología en Colombia: Avances al principio del milenio. Fundación Universitaria San Martin, Bogotá, pp 91–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Castiblanco C, Etter A, Aide TM (2013) Oil palm plantations in Colombia: a model of future expansion. Environ Sci Policy 27:172–183

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman CA, Onderdonk DA (1998) Forest without primates: primate/plant codependency. Am J Primatol 45:127–141

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman CA, Wasserman MD, Gillespie TR, Speirs ML, Lawes MJ, Saj TL, Ziegler TE (2006) Do food availability, parasitism and stress have synergistic effects on red colobus populations living in forest fragments? Am J Phys Anthropol 131:525–534

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiarello AG (2003) Primates of the Brazilian Atlantic forest: the influence of forest fragmentation on survival. In: Marsh LK (ed) Primates in fragments: ecology and conservation. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, Washington, pp 63–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Cristobal-Azkarate J, Arroyo-Rodriguez V (2007) Diet and activity pattern of howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in Los Tuxtlas, Mexico: effects of habitat fragmentation and implications for conservation. Am J Primatol 69:1013–1029

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crockett CM (1996) The relation between red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) troop size and population growth in two habitats. In: Norconk MA, Rosenberger AL, Garber PA (eds) Adaptative radiation of neotropical primates. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Crockett CM (1998) Conservation biology of Alouatta. Int J Primatol 19:549–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Defler TR (2010) Historia Natural de los Primates Colombianos. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá

    Google Scholar 

  • Domínguez C (1998) La gran Cuenca del Orinoco. In: Domínguez C (ed) Colombia Orinoco. Fondo Fen, Bogotá, pp 39–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Ecopetrol (2015) http://www.ecopetrol.com.co/especiales/Sustainability-report-2014/espanol/principal/nuestra-cadena-de-valor/produccion. Accessed 22 Oct 2015

  • Eigenbrod F, Hecnar SJ, Fahrig L (2008) The relative effect of road traffic and forest cover on anuran populations. Biol Conserv 141:35–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elith J, Leathwick JR (2009) Species distribution models: ecological explanation and prediction across space and time. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 40:677–697

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Escobedo-Morales LA, Mandujano S (2007) Conservación del mono aullador en la reserva de la biosfera Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz: un enfoque metapoblacional. Mongr terc milenio 6:131–140

    Google Scholar 

  • Escudero SP (2005) Patrón de actividad, recorridos diarios y dieta de Alouatta seniculus en fragmentos de bosque de galería San Martín Meta. Undergraduate thesis, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia

  • Etter A, McAlpine C, Phinn S, Pullar D, Possingham H (2006) Characterizing a tropical deforestation wave: a dynamic spatial analysis of a deforestation hotspot in the Colombian Amazon. Glob Change Biol 12:1409–1420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Etter A, McAlpine C, Possingham H (2008) Historical patterns and drivers of landscape change in Colombia since 1500: a regionalized spatial approach. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 98(1):2–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fahrig L (2001) How much habitat is enough? Biol Conserv 100:65–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2011) State of the World’s forests 2011. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Fedepalma (2014) Anuario Estadistico 2014: la agroindustria de la palma de aceite en Colombia y en el mundo: 2009–2013. Javegraf, Bogotá

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher J, Lindenmayer DB (2007) Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 16:265–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forman RTT, Godron M (1986) Landscape ecology. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Fragaszy D, Izar P, Visalberghi E, Ottoni EB, Gomes de Oliveira M (2004a) Wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) use anvils and stone pounding tools. Am J Primatol 64:359–366

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fragaszy DM, Visalberghi E, Fedigan LM (2004b) Behavioral ecology: How do capuchins make a living? In: Fragaszy DM, Visalberghi E, Fedigan LM (eds) The complete capuchin: The biology of the genus Cebus. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 36–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Fragaszy DM, Visalberghi E, Fedigan LM (eds) (2004c) The complete capuchin: The biology of the genus Cebus. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Posada C (2012a) Dieta y comportamiento alimenticio de un grupo de mico maicero Cebus apella de acuerdo a la variación en la oferta de frutos y artrópodos, en la Amazonía colombiana. Acta Amazonica 43(3):363–372

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Posada C (2012b) Patrón de actividad y de alimentación de un grupo aprovisionado de Cebus apella en un bosque húmedo tropical (Meta, Colombia). Boletín Científico Centro de Museos 13(1):49–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Guisan A, Graham CH, Elith J, Huettmann F, Species Disribution Modelling Goup NCEAS (2007) Sensitivity of predictive species distribution models to change in grain size. Divers Distrib 13:332–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guisan A, Tingley R, Baumgartner JB, Naujokaitis-Lewis I, Sutcliffe PR, Tulloch AIT, Regan TJ, Brotons L, McDonald-Madden E, Mantyka-Pringle C, Martin TG, Rhodes JR, Maggini R, Setterfield SA, Elith J, Schwartz MW, Wintle BA, Broennimann O, Austin M, Ferrier S, Kearney MR, Possingham HP, Buckey YM (2013) Predicting species distributions for conservation decisions. Ecol Lett 16:1424–1435

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen MC, Potapov PV, Moore R, Hancher M, Turubanova SA, Tyukavina A, Thau D, Stehman V, Goetz SJ, Loveland TR, Kommareddy A, Egorov A, Chini L, Justice CO, Townshend JRG (2013) High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science 342:850–853

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harcourt AH, Doherty DA (2005) Species-area relationships of primates in tropical forest fragments: a global analysis. J Appl Ecol 42(4):630–637

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IDEAM (2014) Mapa de cambio de bosque Colombia – Área continental (Escala Fina LANSAT) Periodo 2005-2010. República de Colombia, Instituto de Hidrología, meteorología y estudios ambientales, Bogotá, Colombia

  • Lambert D (1992) Zero-inflated Poisson regression, with an application to defects in manufacturing. Technometrics 34:1–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lasso CA, Usma JS, Trujillo F, Rial A (eds) (2010) Biodiversidad de la cuenca del Orinoco: bases científicas para la identificación de áreas prioritarias para la conservación y uso sostenible de la biodiversidad, Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, WWF Colombia, Fundación Omacha, Fundación La Salle e Instituto de Estudios de la Orinoquía (Universidad Nacional de Colombia), Bogotá D.C., Colombia

  • Marsh LK (ed) (2003) The nature of fragmentation. In: Primates in fragments: ecology in conservation. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pp 1–10

  • Martin AE, Fahrig L (2012) Measuring and selecting scales of effect for landscape predictors in species-habitat models. Ecol Appl 22(8):2277–2292

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin TG, Wintle BA, Rhodes JR, Kuhnert PM, Field SA, Low-Choy SJ, Tyre AJ, Possingham H (2005) Zero tolerance ecology: improving ecological inference by modelling the source of zero observations. Ecol Lett 8:1235–1246

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAlpine CA, Rhodes JR, Callaghan JG, Bowen ME, Lunney D, Mitchell DL, Pullar DV, Possingham HP (2006) The importance of forest area and configuration relative to local habitat factors for conserving forest mammals: a case study of koalas in Queensland, Australia. Biol Conserv 132:153–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGarial K, McComb WC (1995) Relationships between landscape structure and breeding birds in the Oregon Coast Range. Ecol Monogr 65(3):235–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mittermeier RA, Rylands AB, Wilson DE (2013) Handbook of the mammals of the world, vol. 3, Primates. Lynx, Barcelona

  • Mittermier RA, Oates JJ (1985) Primate diversity: the world’s top countries. Primate Conservation 5:41–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Oja T, Alamets K, Pärnamets H (2005) Modelling bird habitat suitability based on landscape parameters at different scales. Ecol Indic 5(4):314–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ospina MJ (2006) Comparación de los patrones comportamentales de Callicebus cupreus ornatus durante dos épocas estacionales en un fragmento de bosque de galería, en San Martin (Meta). Undergraduate thesis, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia

  • Pozo-Montuy G, Serio-Silva JC (2007) Movement and resource use by a group of Alouatta pigra in a forest fragment in Balancan, Mexico. Primates 48:102–107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pozo-Montuy G, Serio-Silva JC, Bonilla-Sanchez YM, Bynum N, Landgrave R (2008) Current status of the habitat and population of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) in Balancan, Tabasco, Mexico. Am J Primatol 70:1169–1176

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pozo-Montuy G, Serio-Silva JC, Chapman CA, Bonilla-Sanchez YM (2012) Resource use in a landscape matrix by an arboreal primate: evidence of supplementation in black howlers (Alouatta pigra). Int J Primatol 34:714–731

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyritz LW, Büntgr ABS, Herzog SK, Kessler M (2010) Effects of habitat structure and fragmentation on diversity and abundance of primates in tropical deciduous forests in Bolivia. Int J Prrimatol 31:796–812

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos J (2007) Comparación de la cantidad y el tipo de semillas dispersadas por Cebus apella y Alouatta seniculus en un bosque fragmentado, San Martin, Meta. Undergraduate thesis, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogota, Colombia

  • Rhodes JR (2015) Mixture models for overdispersed data. In: Fox GA, Negrete-Yankelevich S, Sosa VJ (eds) ecological statistics: contemporary theory and application. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 285–309

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes JR, McAlpine CA, Zuur AF, Smith GM, Ieno EN (2009) GLMM applied on the spatial distribution of koalas in a fragmented landscape. In: Zuur A, Ieno EN, Walker N, Saveliev AA, Smith GM (eds) Mixed effects models and extensions in ecology with R. Springer, New York, pp 469–492

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rogerson PA (2010) Statistical methods for geography: a student’s guide, 3rd edn. SAGE, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Garcia M, Castillo MI (2016) Temporal evolutionary splits among Cebus taxa: the positive and negative use of Cebus and Sapajus and possible diversification scenarios. In: Ruiz-Garcia M, Shostell J (eds) Phylogeny, Molecular Population Genetics, Paleoprimatology and Evolutionary Biology of Neotropical Primates. Nova Science Publisher, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Rylands AB, Williamson EA, Hoffmann M, Mittermeier RA (2008) Primate surveys and conservation assessments. Oryx 42(3):313–314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santamaria M (2005) The effect of home range reduction on the ecology of Red Howler Monkeys in Central Amazonia. Dissertation, Cambridge University

  • Schipper J, Chanson JS, Chiozza F, Cox NA, Hoffmann M, Katariya V, Lamoreux J, Rodrigues ASL, Stuart SN, Temple HJ, Baillie J, Boitani L, Lacher Jr TE, Mittermeier RA et al. (2008) The status of the world’s land and marine mammals: diversity, threat, and knowledge. Science 322:225–230

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith AG, McAlpine CA, Rhodes JR, Lunney D, Seabrook L, Baxter G (2013) Out on a limb: habitat use of a specialist folivore, the koala, at the edge of its range in a modified semi-arid landscape. Landscape Ecol 28:415–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson PR, Quiñones MJ, Castellanos MC (1998) Guía de los frutos de los bosques del Río Duda La Macarena, Colombia. Giro Editores, Bogotá

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornton DH, Branch LC, Sunquist ME (2011) The relative influence of habitat loss and fragmentation: do tropical mammals meet the temperate paradigm? Ecol Appl 21(6):2324–2333

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torres JA (2005) Historia natural del maicero café (Cebus apella) y patrones de asociación interespecifica con el mono ardilla (Saimiri scciureus albigena) en un bosque fragmentado (San Martín, Meta). Undergraduate thesis, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

  • Wagner M, Castro F, Stevenson PR (2009) Habitat characterization and population status of the dusty titi monkey (Callicebus ornatus) in fragmented forest, Meta, Colombia. Neotropical Primates 16(1):18–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wieczkowski J (2004) Ecological correlates of abundance in the Tana mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus). Am J Primatol 63:125–138

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiens JA (2009) Landscape ecology as a foundation for sustainable conservation. Landscape Ecol 24:1053–1065

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zarate DA, Stevenson PR (2014) Behavioral ecology and interindividual distance of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha) in a rainforest fragment in Colombia. In: Defler TR, Stevenson PR (eds) The woolly monkey, developments in primatology: progress and prospects. Springer, New York, pp 227–245

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zeileis A, Kleiber C, Jackman S (2008) Regression Models for Count Data in R. J Stat Softw 27(8). http://www.jstatsoft.org/v27/i08/

  • Zunino GE, Kowalewski MM, Oklander L, Gonzaléz V (2007) Habitat framntation and population size of the black and gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) in a semideciduous forest in Northern Argentina. Am J Primatol 69:966–975

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuur AF, Ieno EN, Walker NJ, Saveliev AA, Smith GM (2009) Zero-truncated and zero-inflated models for count data. In: Zuur AF, Ieno EN, Walker NJ, Saveliev AA, Smith GM (eds) Mixed effect models and extensions in ecology with R. Springer, New York, pp 261–293

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by funding from the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions and IPRS and UQCent scholarships from The University of Queensland also supported the first author. This research met the Animal Ethics Regulations from The University of Queensland (AEC No. GPEM/096/13). The first author wishes to thank the local people and landowners who supported the fieldwork.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. ARC Centre of Excellence for Environmental Decisions, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia

    Xyomara Carretero-Pinzón & Jonathan R. Rhodes

  2. School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia

    Clive A. McAlpine

  3. Department of Biology, National University of Colombia, Cra. 45 # 26-85, Bogotá, Colombia

    Thomas R. Defler

Authors
  1. Xyomara Carretero-Pinzón
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thomas R. Defler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Clive A. McAlpine
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Jonathan R. Rhodes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xyomara Carretero-Pinzón.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 71 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Carretero-Pinzón, X., Defler, T.R., McAlpine, C.A. et al. The influence of landscape relative to site and patch variables on primate distributions in the Colombian Llanos. Landscape Ecol 32, 883–896 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-017-0493-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-017-0493-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation