Abstract
Ruminative thoughts induced by the COVID-19 pandemic have an adverse impact on individual well-being. However, little is known about how to alleviate such a negative effect – let alone how a person can flourish during crises. The current study uses the self-determination model of flow to propose that two proactive behaviors, strength use and playful design, are positively related to the flow experience, which, in turn, is positively related to daily flourishing. Moreover, we propose that the effects of proactive behaviors on flow are stronger when individuals ruminate more about COVID-19 pandemic. Using a day reconstruction method, we collected data from university students across five consecutive days (N-person = 135, N-day = 665, N-activity = 2985). Multilevel results showed that strengths use and playful design were positively related to flow experience. In turn, flow experience was positively related to daily flourishing. Moreover, we found that COVID-19 rumination moderated the associations between proactive behaviors and flow, such that strengths use and playful design were more effective to foster flow when individuals had a higher (vs. lower) level of rumination. The results imply that in order to function well and flourish during a crisis, individuals could make use of their strengths or playfully design the activities in their daily lives. In a broader sense, we provide concrete behavioral strategies to cope with the downsides of negative events.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Note that in the measurement model, two pairs of items of flourishing were highly correlated (the first item with the third item, and the second item with the fourth item). In accordance with Brown (2015), we adjusted for these measurement errors by allowing the two pairs of items to covary.
References
Altamirano, L. J., Miyake, A., & Whitmer, A. J. (2010). When mental inflexibility facilitates executive control: Beneficial side effects of ruminative tendencies on goal maintenance. Psychological Science, 21(10), 1377–1382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610381505.
Ando’, A., Giromini, L., Ales, F., & Zennaro, A. (2020). A multimethod assessment to study the relationship between rumination and gender differences. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 61(6), 740–750. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12666.
Aswini, S., & Deb, A. (2017). Flourishing among postgraduate students: The role of resilience, meaningfulness and grit. Indian Journal of Community Psychology, 13(1), 24–38. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A488193682/AONE?u=anon~c502f05f &sid=googleScholar&xid=2d891eeb.
Atler, K. E., Eakman, A. M., & Orsi, R. (2018). College students’ experiences of hedonia and eudaimonia in their everyday activities. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 85(1), 66–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0008417417727297.
Bakker, A. B. (2008). The work-related flow inventory: Construction and initial validation of the WOLF. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(3), 400–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2007.11.007.
Bakker, A. B. (2022). The social psychology of work engagement: State of the field. Career Development International, 27, 36–53. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-08-2021-0213.
Bakker, A. B., & Van Wingerden, J. (2021). Rumination about COVID-19 and employee well-being: The role of playful work design. Canadian Psychology, 62, 73–79. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000262.
Bakker, A. B., & Van Woerkom, M. (2017). Flow at work: A self-determination perspective. Occupational Health Science, 1(1–2), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41542-017-0003-3.
Bakker, A. B., & Van Woerkom, M. (2018). Strengths use in organizations: A positive approach of occupational health. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne Occupational Health, 59(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000120.
Bakker, A. B., Hetland, J., Olsen, O. K., & Espevik, R. (2019). Daily strengths use and employee well-being: The moderating role of personality. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92(1), 144–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12243.
Bakker, A. B., Hetland, J., Olsen, O. K., Espevik, R., & De Vries, J. D. (2020). Job crafting and playful work design: Links with performance during busy and quiet days. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103478.
Bakker, A. B., Breevaart, K., Scharp, Y. S., & de Vries, J. D. (2021). Daily self-leadership and playful work design: Proactive approaches of work in times of crisis. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 59(2), 314–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/00218863211060453.
Barnett, L. A. (2007). The nature of playfulness in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(4), 949–958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.018.
Bassi, M., Steca, P., Monzani, D., Greco, A., & Delle Fave, A. (2014). Personality and optimal experience in adolescence: Implications for well-being and development. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(4), 829–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9451-x.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238.
Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford publications.
Caillois, R. (2001). Man, play, and games. University of Illinois Press.
Cangiano, F., Parker, S. K., & Yeo, G. B. (2019). Does daily proactivity affect well-being? The moderating role of punitive supervision. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 40(1), 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2321.
Cangiano, F., Parker, S. K., & Ouyang, K. (2020). Too proactive to switch off: When taking charge drains resources and impairs detachment. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 26(2), 142–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000265.
Carstensen, L. L., Shavit, Y. Z., & Barnes, J. T. (2020). Age advantages in emotional experience persist even under threat from the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Science, 31(11), 1374–1385. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620967261.
Charlton, C., Rasbash, J., Browne, W. J., Healy, M., & Cameron, B. (2020). MLwiN (3.05). Centre for Multilevel Modelling, University of Bristol.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). If we are so rich, why aren’t we happy? American Psychologist, 54(10), 821–827. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.10.821.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). The contribution of flow to positive psychology. In J. E. Gillham (Ed.), The science of optimism and hope: Research essays in honor of Martin E. P. Seligman (pp. 387–395). Templeton Foundation Press.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2020). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. Hachette UK.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, S. I. (1992). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Cambridge university.
Datu, J. A. D., Labarda, C. E., & Salanga, M. G. C. (2020). Flourishing is associated with achievement goal orientations and academic delay of gratification in a collectivist context. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(4), 1171–1182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00122-w.
Demerouti, E. (2006). Job characteristics, flow, and performance: The moderating role of conscientiousness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11(3), 266–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.11.3.266.
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D. W., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Indicators Research, 97(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/sll205-009-9493-y.
Dockray, S., Grant, N., Stone, A. A., Kahneman, D., Wardle, J., & Steptoe, A. (2010). A comparison of affect ratings obtained with ecological momentary assessment and the day reconstruction method. Social Indicators Research, 99(2), 269–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9578-7.
Donahue, E. G., Forest, J., Vallerand, R. J., Lemyre, P. N., Crevier-Braud, L., & Bergeron, É. (2012). Passion for work and emotional exhaustion: The mediating role of rumination and recovery. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 4(3), 341–368. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2012.01078.x.
Du, D., Derks, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2018). Daily spillover from family to work: A test of the work–home resources model. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 23(2), 237–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000073.supp.
Ettman, C. K., Abdalla, S. M., Cohen, G. H., Sampson, L., Vivier, P. M., & Galea, S. (2020). Prevalence of depression symptoms in US adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Network Open, 3(9), e2019686. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.19686.
Fay, D., & Hüttges, A. (2017). Drawbacks of proactivity: Effects of daily proactivity on daily salivary cortisol and subjective well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(4), 429–442. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000042.
Fong, C. J., Zaleski, D. J., & Leach, J. K. (2015). The challenge–skill balance and antecedents of flow: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(5), 425–446. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.967799.
Ghielen, S. T. S., Van Woerkom, M., & Christina Meyers, M. (2018). Promoting positive outcomes through strengths interventions: A literature review. Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(6), 573–585. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1365164.
Giuntoli, L., Condini, F., Ceccarini, F., Huta, V., & Vidotto, G. (2021). The different roles of hedonic and eudaimonic motives for activities in predicting functioning and well-being experiences. Journal of Happiness Studies, 22, 1657–1671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00290-0.
Govindji, R., & Linley, P. A. (2007). Strengths use, self-concordance and well-being: Implications for strengths coaching and coaching psychologists. International Coaching Psychology Review, 2(2), 143–153.
Hong, W., Liu, R. D., Ding, Y., Fu, X., Zhen, R., & Sheng, X. (2021). Social media exposure and college students’ mental health during the outbreak of covid-19: The mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of mindfulness. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 24(4), 282–287. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2020.0387.
Kahneman, D., Krueger, A. B., Schkade, D. A., Schwarz, N., & Stone, A. A. (2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experience: The day reconstruction method. Science, 306(5702), 1776–1780. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1103572.
Kazak, Z., Lochbaum, M., & Canpolat, A. M. (2021). Flourishing in young adults: The role of achievement goals, participation motivation, and self-perception levels in physical activity contexts. Sustainability, 13(13), 7450. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137450.
Kerkhoff, D., & Nussbeck, F. W. (2019). The influence of sample size on parameter estimates in three-level random-effects models. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1067. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01067.
Lakhan, R., Agrawal, A., & Sharma, M. (2020). Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress during COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice, 11(04), 519–525. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1716442.
Lin, J., Lin, S., Turel, O., & Xu, F. (2020). The buffering effect of flow experience on the relationship between overload and social media users’ discontinuance intentions. Telematics and Informatics, 49, 101374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2020.101374.
Liu, W., van der Linden, D., & Bakker, A. B. (2021). Strengths use and work-related flow: An experience sampling study on implications for risk taking and attentional behaviors. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 37(1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-07-2020-0403.
Liu, W., Bakker, A. B., Tse, B. T., & van der Linden, D. (2022). Does playful work design ‘lead to’more creativity? A diary study on the role of flow. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2022.2104716.
Lucas, R. E., Wallsworth, C., Anusic, I., & Donnellan, M. B. (2021). A direct comparison of the day reconstruction method (DRM) and the experience sampling method (ESM). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 120(3), 816–835. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000289.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Layous, K. (2013). How do simple positive activities increase well-being? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412469809.
Martela, F., Ryan, R. M., & Steger, M. F. (2018). Meaningfulness as satisfaction of autonomy, competence, relatedness, and beneficence: Comparing the four satisfactions and positive affect as predictors of meaning in life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(5), 1261–1282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9869-7.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on psychological science, 3(5), 400–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x.
Oerlemans, W. G. M., & Bakker, A. B. (2018). Motivating job characteristics and happiness at work: A multilevel perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(11), 1230–1241. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000318.
Ouweneel, E., Le Blanc, P. M., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2011). Flourishing students: A longitudinal study on positive emotions, personal resources, and study engagement. Journal of Positive Psychology, 6(2), 142–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2011.558847.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., Memmott-Elison, M. K., & Nelson, L. J. (2017). Positive relationships as an indicator of flourishing during emerging adulthood. In L. M. P.-W. Padilla-Walker & L. J. Nelson (Eds.), Flourishing in emerging adulthood: Positive development during the third decade of life (pp. 212–236). Oxford University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-30845-018.
Park, N., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Strengths of character and well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(5), 603–619. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.5.603.50748.
Parker, S. K., Wang, Y., & Liao, J. (2019). When is proactivity wise? A review of factors that influence the individual outcomes of proactive behavior. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 6, 221–248. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012218-015302.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford University Pres.
Preacher, K. J., Zyphur, M. J., & Zhang, Z. (2010). A general multilevel SEM framework for assessing multilevel mediation. Psychological Methods, 15(3), 209–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020141.
Ribera, A., & Ceja, L. (2018). Flow: Flourishing at work. In J. Mercado (Ed.), Personal flourishing in Organizations. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57702-9_6.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68.
Ryan, R. M., Huta, V., & Deci, E. L. (2008). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 139–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9023-4.
Ryan, R. M., Bernstein, J. H., & Brown, K. W. (2010). Weekends, work, and well-being: Psychological need satisfactions and day of the week effects on mood, vitality, and physical symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(1), 95–122. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2010.29.1.95.
Ryan, R. M., Curren, R. R., & Deci, E. L. (2013). What humans need: Flourishing in Aristotelian philosophy and self-determination theory. The Best within Us: Positive Psychology Perspectives on Eudaimonia., 57–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/14092-004.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069.
Salanova, M., Bakker, A. B., & Llorens, S. (2006). Flow at work: Evidence for an upward spiral of personal and organizational resources. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-8854-8.
Scharp, Y. S., Breevaart, K., Bakker, A. B., & Van der Linden, D. (2019). Daily playful work design: A trait activation perspective. Journal of Research in Personality, 82, 103850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2019.103850.
Scharp, Y. S., Breevaart, K., & Bakker, A. B. (2021). Using playful work design to deal with hindrance job demands: A quantitative diary study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 26, 175–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000277.
Scharp, Y. S., Bakker, A. B., & Breevaart, K. (2022). Playful work design and employee work engagement: A self-determination perspective. Journal of Vocational Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JVB.2022.103693. 103693.
Sharp, E. H., Coatsworth, J. D., Darling, N., Cumsille, P., & Ranieri, S. (2007). Gender differences in the self-defining activities and identity experiences of adolescents and emerging adults. Journal of Adolescence, 30(2), 251–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.02.006.
Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol, 76, 482–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.3.482.
Steger, M. F., Kashdan, T. B., & Oishi, S. (2008). Being good by doing good: Daily eudaimonic activity and well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(1), 22–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.03.004.
Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(3), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023910315561.
Trougakos, J. P., Chawla, N., & McCarthy, J. M. (2020). Working in a pandemic: Exploring the impact of COVID-19 health anxiety on work, family, and health outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(11), 1234–1245. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000739.supp.
Van der Linden, D., Tops, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2021). Go with the flow: A neuroscientific view on being fully engaged. European Journal of Neuroscience, 53(4), 947–963. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.15014.
Van Woerkom, M., & Meyers, M. C. (2019). Strengthening personal growth: The effects of a strengths intervention on personal growth initiative. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 92(1), 98–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12240.
Van Woerkom, M., Oerlemans, W., & Bakker, A. B. (2016). Strengths use and work engagement: A weekly diary study. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 25(3), 384–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2015.1089862.
Verwijmeren, S., De Vries, J. D., & Bakker, A. B. (2023). Playful sports design: A game changer? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2023.2185698.
Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 678–691. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678.
Waterman, A. S. (2005). When effort is enjoyed: Two studies of intrinsic motivation for personally salient activities. Motivation and emotion, 29, 165–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-005-9440-4.
Weintraub, J., Cassell, D., & DePatie, T. P. (2021). Nudging flow through ‘SMART’ goal setting to decrease stress, increase engagement, and increase performance at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 94(2), 230–258. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12347.
Ye, B., Zhou, X., Im, H., Liu, M., Wang, X. Q., & Yang, Q. (2020). Epidemic rumination and resilience on college students’ depressive symptoms during the covid-19 pandemic: The mediating role of fatigue. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 560983. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.560983.
Yi-Feng Chen, N., Crant, J. M., Wang, N., Kou, Y., Qin, Y., Yu, J., & Sun, R. (2021). When there is a will there is a way: The role of proactive personality in combating COVID-19. Journal of Applied Psychology, 106(2), 199–213. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000865.
Zhang, N. (2022). Risk perception, mental health distress, and flourishing during the COVID-19 pandemic in China: The role of positive and negative affect. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02624-4.
Zhang, W., You, Y., Wang, L., Liu, W., & Zhang, X. C. (2022). Overload’s double-edged sword effect on sense of safety: Examining the moderating role of hypervigiliance. Stress and Health. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3203.
Zhong, M., Hunt, J. D., & Lu, X. (2008). Studying differences of household weekday and weekend activities: A duration perspective. Transportation Research Record, 2054(1), 28–36. https://doi.org/10.3141/2054-0.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Liu, W., Zhang, W., van der Linden, D. et al. Flow and Flourishing During the Pandemic: The Roles of Strengths Use and Playful Design. J Happiness Stud 24, 2153–2175 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-023-00670-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-023-00670-2