Abstract
This research examined how stakeholders (n = 40) from one school district experienced “accountability” within a context where responsibility for student learning was being distributed across the system. Using a case study design, we examined: what conditions supported stakeholders in multiple roles to exercise responsibility for student learning? Analyses of documents and interviews revealed conditions that enabled teachers, instructional leaders, and administrators to share responsibility in relation to their roles, and empowered teachers to engage in inquiry for continuous improvement and build from their sense of professionalism and responsibility. Implications are discussed for empowering teachers, and other stakeholders, to exercise responsibility in the context of an accountability system.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agar, M. (1996). The professional stranger: an informal introduction to ethnography (2nd ed.). Academic Press.
Anderson, S., Leithwood, K., & Strauss, T. (2010). Leading data use in schools: organizational conditions and practices at the school and district levels. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 9(3), 292–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700761003731492
Biesta, G. (2004). Education, accountability, and the ethical demand: can the democratic potential of accountability be regained? Educational Theory, 54(3), 233–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0013-2004.2004.00017.x
Biesta, G. (2017). Lead learner or head teacher? Exploring connections between curriculum, leadership and evaluation in an ‘Age of Measurement.’ In M. Uljens & R. M. Ylimaki (Eds.), Bridging educational leadership, curriculum theory and didaktik (pp. 181–198). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58650-2
Birenbaum, M. (2014). Conceptualizing assessment culture in school. In C. Wyatt-Smith, V. Klenowski, & V. Colbert (Eds.), Designing assessment for quality learning (pp. 285–302). Springer, Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5902-2_18
Birenbaum, M., Kimron, H., Shilton, H., & Shahaf-Barzilay, R. (2009). Cycles of inquiry: formative assessment in service of learning and in classrooms and in school-based professional communities. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 35(4), 130–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2010.01.001
Bloxham, R., Ehrich, L. C., & Iyer, R. (2015). Leading or managing? Assistant regional directors, school performance in queensland. Journal of Educational Administration, 55(3), 354–373. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-12-2013-0129
Brownlie, F., Feniak, C., & Schnellert, L. (2016). Student diversity (2nd Ed.). Markham, ON: Pembroke.
Bryk, A. S., & Schneider, B. (2002). Trust in schools: a core resource for improvement. Russell Sage Foundation. https://doi.org/10.7758/9781610440967
Buchanan, R. (2015). Teacher identity and agency in an era of accountability. Teachers and Teaching, 21(6), 700–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2015.1044329
Butler, D. L. (2011). Investigating self-regulated learning using in-depth case studies. In B. J. Zimmerman, & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 346–360). New York, NY: Routledge.
Butler, D. L., & Cartier, S. C. (2004, May). Learning in varying activities: An explanatory framework and a new evaluation tool founded on a model of self-regulated learning. In Paper presented at the annual meetings of the Canadian society for studies in education, Winnipeg, MB.
Butler, D. L., & Cartier, S. C. (2018). Advancing research and practice about self-regulated learning: The promise of in-depth case study methodologies. In D. H. Schunk, & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd Ed., pp. 352–369). New York, NY: Routledge.
Butler, D. L., Cartier, S. C., Schnellert, L., Gagnon, F., & Giammarino, M. (2011). Secondary students’ self-regulated engagement in reading: Researching self-regulation as situated in context. Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling, 11(1), 73–105.
Butler, D. L., & Schnellert, L. (2012). Collaborative inquiry in teacher professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(8), 1206–1220.
Butler, D. L. & Schnellert, L. (2020). Tracing cycles of teachers’ self- and co-regulated practice within a professional learning network. In Professional learning networks: Facilitating transformation in diverse contexts with equity-seeking communities (pp. 74–108). Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing.
Butler, D. L., Schnellert, L., & Cartier, S. C. (2013). Layers of self- and co-regulation: Teachers’ coregulating learning and practice to foster students’ self-regulated learning through reading. Education Research International, 1, 19.
Butler, D. L., Schnellert, L., & MacNeil, K. (2015). Collaborative inquiry and distributed agency in educational change: A case study of a multi-level community of inquiry. Journal of Educational Change, 16, 1–26.
Cartier, S. C., & Butler, D. L. (2004, May). Elaboration and validation of the questionnaires and plan for analysis. In Paper presented at the annual meetings of the Canadian society for studies in education, Winnipeg, MB.
Camburn, E. (2010). Embedded teacher learning opportunities as a site for reflective practice: an exploratory study. American Journal of Education, 116(4), 463–489. https://doi.org/10.1086/653624
Chatelier, S., & Rudolph, S. (2018). Teacher responsibility: Shifting care from student to (professional) self? British Journal of Sociology of Education, 39(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2017.1291328
Christensen, T., & Lægreid, P. (2015). Performance and accountability: a theoretical discussion and an empirical assessment. Public Organization Review, 15(2), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-013-0267-2
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (1999). Relationships of knowledge and practice: teacher learning in communities. Review of Research in Education, 24, 249–305. https://doi.org/10.2307/1167272
Codd, J. (2005). Teachers as ‘managed professionals’ in the global education industry: the New Zealand experience. Educational Review, 57(2), 193–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/0013191042000308369
Cranston, J. (2011). Relational trust: the glue that binds a professional learning community. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 57(1), 59–72.
Cranston, N. (2013). School leaders leading: professional responsibility not accountability as the key focus. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 41(2), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143212468348
Darling-Hammond, L. (1994). Performance-based assessment and educational equity. Harvard Educational Review, 64(1), 5–31.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2004). Standards, accountability, and school reform. Teachers College Record, 106(6), 1047–1085.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2005). Policy and change: getting beyond bureaucracy. In A. Hargreaves (Ed.), Extending educational change (pp. 362–387). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4453-4_18
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education. How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future. Teachers College Press.
Darling-Hammond, L., Wilhoit, G., & Pittenger, L. (2014). Accountability for college and career readiness: developing a new paradigm. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 22(86), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v22n86.2014
Datnow, A. (2011). Collaboration and contrived collegiality: revisiting Hargreaves in the age of accountability. Journal of Educational Change, 12(2), 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-011-9154-1
Datnow, A., & Hubbard, L. (2016). Teacher capacity for and beliefs about data-driven decision making: a literature review of international research. Journal of Educational Change, 17(1), 7–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-015-9264-2
Datnow, A., Lockton, M., & Weddle, H. (2020). Redefining or reinforcing accountability? An examination of meeting routines in schools. Journal of Educational Change, 21(1), 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-019-09349-z
Day, C., Elliot, B., & Kington, A. (2005). Reform, standards and teacher identity: challenges of sustaining commitment. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(5), 563–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2005.03.001
Debard, R., & Kubow, P. K. (2002). From compliance to commitment: the need for constituent discourse in implementing testing policy. Educational Policy, 16(3), 387–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/08904802016003002
Ehren, M., & Perryman, J. (2018). Accountability of school networks: who is accountable to whom and for what? Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 46(6), 942–959. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143217717272
Englund, T., & Solbrekke, T. D. (2011). Professional responsibility under pressure? In C. Sugrue & T. D. Solbrekke (Eds.), Professional responsibility: new horizons of praxis (pp. 57–71). Routledge.
Eteläpelto, A., Vähäsantanen, K., Hökkä, P., & Paloniemi, S. (2013). What is agency? Conceptualizing professional agency at work. Educational Research Review, 10, 45–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2013.05.001
Fullan, M., Rincón-Gaillardo, S., & Hargreaves, A. (2015). Professional capital as accountability. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(15), 2–18. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v23.1998
Gobby, B., Keddie, A., & Blackmore, J. (2018). Professionalism and competing responsibilities: moderating competitive performativity in school autonomy reform. Journal of Educational Administration and History, 50(3), 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220620.2017.1399864
Greenfield, R., Rinaldi, C., Proctor, C. P., & Cardarelli, A. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions of a response to intervention (RTI) reform effort in an urban elementary school: a consensual qualitative analysis. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 21(1), 47–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207310365499
Hargreaves, D. H. (1994). The new professionalism: the synthesis of professional and institutional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(4), 423–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051X(94)90023-X
Hargreaves, A., & Shirley, D. (2009). The fourth way. Corwin Press.
Helgøy, I., & Homme, A. (2007). Towards a new professionalism in school?: A comparative study of teacher autonomy in Norway and Sweden. European Educational Research Journal, 6(3), 232–249. https://doi.org/10.2304/eerj.2007.6.3.232
Herman, J. L. (2008). Accountability and assessment in the service of learning: Is the public interest being served? In K. Ryan & L. Shepard (Eds.), The future of test-based accountability (pp. 211–231). Routledge/Lawrence Erlbaum.
Holloway, J., Sørensen, T. B., & Verger, A. (2017). Global perspectives on high-stakes teacher accountability policies: an introduction. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 25(85), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.25.3325
Hult, A., & Edström, C. (2016). Teacher ambivalence towards school evaluation: promoting and ruining teacher professionalism. Education Inquiry, 7(3), 305–325. https://doi.org/10.3402/edui.v7.30200
Hult, A., Lundström, U., & Edström, C. (2016). Balancing managerial and professional demands: school principals as evaluation brokers. Education Inquiry, 7(3), 283–304. https://doi.org/10.3402/edui.v7.29960
Hursh, D. (2005). The growth of high-stakes testing in the USA: accountability, markets and the decline in educational equality. British Educational Research Journal, 31(5), 605–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411920500240767
Jennings, J. L., & Bearak, J. M. (2014). «Teaching to the Test» in the NCLB era: how test predictability affects our understanding of student performance. Educational Researcher, 43(8), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X14554449
Kelchtermans, G. (2011). Professional responsibility: persistent commitment, perpetual vulnerability? In C. Sugrue & T. D. Solbrekke (Eds.), Professional responsibility: new horizons of praxis (pp. 113–126). Routledge.
Ketelaar, E., Beijaard, D., Boshuizen, H. P., & Den Brok, P. J. (2012). Teachers’ positioning towards an educational innovation in the light of ownership, sense-making and agency. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(2), 273–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2011.10.004
Knoester, M. K., & Au, W. (2017). Standardized testing and school segregation: like tinder for fire? Race, Ethnicity and Education, 20(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2015.1121474
Koretz, D. (2017). Moving beyond the failure of test-based accountability. American Educator, 41(4), 22–26.
Lauermann, F. (2014). Teacher responsibility from the teacher’s perspective. International Journal of Educational Research, 65, 75–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2013.09.005
Lauermann, F., & Karabenick, S. A. (2011). Taking teacher responsibility into account(ability): explicating its multiple components and theoretical status. Educational Psychologist, 46(2), 122–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.558818
Lauermann, F., & Karabenick, S. A. (2013). The meaning and measure of teachers’ sense of responsibility for educational outcomes. Teaching and Teacher Education, 30, 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.10.001
Lee, V. E., & Smith, J. B. (1996). Collective responsibility for learning and its effect on gains in achievement for early secondary students. American Journal of Education, 104(2), 103–147. https://doi.org/10.1086/444122
Leithwood, K., & Earl, L. (2000). Educational accountability effects: an international perspective. Peabody Journal of Education, 75(4), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327930PJE7504_1
Lemoine, P. A., Greer, D., McCormack, T. J., & Richardson, M. D. (2014). From managerial to instructional leadership: Barriers principals must overcome. In: New Waves – Educational Research & Development, 17(1), 17–30.
Lillejord, S. (2020). From “unintelligent” to intelligent accountability. Journal of Educational Change, 21(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-020-09379-y
Louis, K. S. (2007). Trust and improvement in schools. Journal of Educational Change, 8(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-006-9015-5
Matteucci, M. C., Guglielmi, D., & Lauermann, F. (2017). Teachers’ sense of responsibility for educational outcomes and its associations with teachers’ instructional approaches and professional wellbeing. Social Psychology of Education, 202(2), 275–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-017-9369-y
Miles, H. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). SAGE.
Møller, J. (2009). School leadership in an age of accountability: tensions between managerial and professional accountability. Journal of Educational Change, 10(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-008-9078-6
Mullen, C. A., & Schunk, D. H. (2010). A view of professional learning communities through three frames: leadership, organization, and culture. McGill Journal of Education, 45(2), 185–203. https://doi.org/10.7202/045603ar
Nagy, P. (2000). The three roles of assessment: gatekeeping, accountability, and instructional diagnosis. Canadian Journal of Education / Revue Canadienne De L’éducation, 25(4), 262–279. https://doi.org/10.2307/158585
O’Connor, K. E. (2008). “You choose to care”: teachers, emotions and professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(1), 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.11.008
O’Day, J. A. (2002). Complexity, accountability, and school improvement. Harvard Educational Review, 72(3), 293–329.
O’Day, J. A., & Smith, M. S. (2016). Quality and equality in American education: systemic problems, systemic solutions. In I. Kirsch & H. Braun (Eds.), The dynamics of opportunity in America: evidence and perspectives (pp. 297–358). Springer International Publishing.
Opfer, V. D., Pedder, D. J., & Lavicza, Z. (2011). The influence of school orientation to learning on teachers’ professional learning change. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 22(2), 193–214.
Palermo, C., & Thomson, M. M. (2018). Large-scale assessment as professional development: teachers’ motivations, ability beliefs, and values. Teacher Development, 23(2), 191–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2018.1536612
Perry, L., & McWilliam, E. (2007). Accountability, responsibility, and school leadership. Journal of Educational Enquiry, 7(1), 32–43.
Rothman, R., & Marion, S. F. (2016). The next generation of state assessment and accountability. The Phi Delta Kappa International, 97(8), 34–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721716647016
Ruohotie-Lyhty, M., & Moate, J. (2015). Proactive and reactive dimensions of life-course agency: mapping student teachers’ language learning experiences. Language and Education, 29(1), 46–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2014.927884
Sahlberg, P. (2010). Rethinking accountability in a knowledge society. Journal of Educational Change, 11(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-008-9098-2
Schoenfeld, A. H. (2017). On learning and assessment. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy, & Practice, 24(3), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2017.1336986
Schnellert, L., Butler, D. L., & Higginson, S. (2008). Co-constructors of data, co-constructors of meaning: Teacher professional development in an age of accountability. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(3), 725–750.
Sciarra, D. G., & Hunter, M. A. (2015). Resource accountability: enforcing state responsibilities for sufficient and equitable resources used effectively to provide all students a quality education. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 23(21), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v23.2032
Scribner, J. P., Hager, D. R., & Warne, T. R. (2002). The paradox of professional community: Tales from two high schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 38, 45–76.
Shaked, H., & Schechter, C. (2017). School principals as mediating agents in education reforms. School Leadership & Management, 37(1–2), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2016.1209182
Shepard, L. A., Penuel, W. R., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2018). Using learning and motivation theories to coherently link formative assessment, grading practices, and large-scale assessment. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 37(1), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12189
Sinclair, A. (1995). The chameleon of accountability: forms and discourses. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 20(2), 219–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-3682(93)E0003-Y
Sirotnik, K. A. (2002). Promoting responsible accountability in schools and education. The Phi Delta Kappan, 83(9), 662–673.
Solbrekke, T. D., & Englund, T. (2011). Bringing professional responsibility back in. Studies in Higher Education, 36(7), 847–861. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2010.482205
Solbrekke, T. D., & Sugrue, C. (2011). Professional responsibility – back to the future. In C. Sugrue & T. D. Solbrekke (Eds.), Professional responsibility: new horizons of praxis (pp. 9–28). Routledge.
Solbrekke, T. D., & Sugrue, C. (2012). Learning from conceptions of professional responsibility and graduates’ experiences in becoming novice practitioners. In A. McKee & M. Eraut (Eds.), Learning trajectories, innovation and identity for professional development (pp. 193–214). London: Springer Science + Business Media.
Spillane, J.P. (1999). External reform initiatives and teachers' efforts to reconstruct their practice: The mediating role of teachers' zones of enactment. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(2), 143–175.
Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple case study analysis. Guilford.
Sugrue, C., & Mertkan, S. (2017). Professional responsibility, accountability and performativity among teachers: the leavening influence of CPD? Teachers and Teaching, 23(2), 171–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2016.1203771
Tavory, I., & Timmermans, S. (2014). Abductive analysis: theoreizing qualitative research. University of Chicago.
Tolo, A., Lillejord, S., Flórez, P., & Hopfenbeck, T. N. (2020). Intelligent accountability in schools: a study of how school leaders work with the implementation of assessment for learning. Journal of Educational Change, 21(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-019-09359-x
Torrance, H. (2017). Blaming the victim: Assessment, examinations, and the responsibilisation of students and teachers in neo-liberal governance. Discourse: Studies in the cultural politics of education, 38(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2015.1104854
Tschannen-Moran, M. (2009). Fostering teacher professionalism in schools: the role of leadership orientation and trust. Educational Administration Quarterly, 45(2), 217–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X08330501
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Gareis, C. R. (2015). Principals, trust, and cultivating vibrant schools. Societies, 5(2), 256–276. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc5020256
Vähäsantenan, K., Hökkä, P., Eteläpelto, A., Rasku-Puttonen, H., & Littleton, K. (2008). Teachers’ professional identity negotiations in two different work organisations. Vocations and Learning, 1(2), 131–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-008-9008-z
Verger, A., & Parcerisa, L. (2017). Accountability and education in the post-2015 scenario: International trends, enactment dynamics and socio-educational effects. (Paper prepared for the 2017/8 Global Education Monitoring Report 'Accountability in education: Meeting our commitments'). Retrieved from: https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/report/2017/accountability-education
Verger, A., Parcerisa, L., & Fontdevila, C. (2019). The growth and spread of large-scale assessments and test-based accountabilities: A political sociology of global education reforms. Educational Review, 71(1), 5–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2019.1522045
von der Embse, N. P., Pendergast, L. L., Segool, N., Saeki, E., & Ryan, S. (2016). The influence of test-based accountability policies on school climate and teacher stress across four states. Teaching and Teacher Education, 59, 492–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.07.013
Wagner, R. B. (1989). Accountability in education. Routledge.
Wallace, C. S., & Priestley, M. (2011). Teacher beliefs and the mediation of curriculum innovation in Scotland: a socio-cultural perspective on professional development and change. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 43(3), 357–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2011.563447
Webster-Wright, A. (2009). Reframing professional development through understanding authentic professional learning. Review of Educational Research, 79(2), 702–739.
West, A., Mattei, P., & Roberts, J. (2011). Accountability and sanctions in English schools. British Journal of Educational Studies, 59(1), 41–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2010.529416
White, G. W., Stepney, C. T., Hatchimonji, D. R., Moceri, D. C., Linsky, A. V., Reyes-Portillo, J. A., & Elias, M. J. (2016). The increasing impact of socioeconomics and race on standardized academic test scores across elementary, middle, and high schools. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86(1), 10–23. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000122
Wilson, M. (2018). Making measurement important for education: the crucial role of classroom assessment. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 37(1), 5–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12188
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: design and methods (6th ed.). Sage Publications.
Acknowledgements
This project was supported by a standard research grant to the second author from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. We are thankful for Stephanie Higginson’s support with data collection. We would also like to thank the participants in this study for their willingness to share their experiences with the project team.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
MacNeil, K.A., Butler, D.L. & Schnellert, L.M. From accountability to shared responsibility: A case study of a multi-layered educational change initiative. J Educ Change 24, 213–241 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-021-09440-4
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-021-09440-4