Techné of Rock Engravings –the Timna Case Study

Traditionally, rock-engravings were studied through their visual characteristics. They have been analyzed with comparative and interpretative methodologies of iconography and iconology. However, there has been a recent shift towards identifying production processes, allowing reconstruction of operational characteristics through various methods. Nevertheless, the studies of the technological aspects focus on the operational and the mechanical, omitting the visuality of the outcome. No uni�ed methodologies have been offered to both technological and visual perspectives. In the current paper we are using ArchCUT3-D software for computational analysis of 3-D data acquired from various rock-engravings located in Timna Park, southern Israel. We show how micro-morphological evidence, extracted from the engraved lines, can decode technical trends and variabilities in a technique’s particular implementation. Then, we conduct a focused examination of one group of engraved �gures in order to establish a link between execution techniques and visual considerations. Based on our results and the following discussion, we suggest the term Techné to indicate the choice of technique that go beyond the instrumental or purely operative perspectives. We highlight the intentional choice, which design the visual rhetoric of the engraved marks and suggest cultural concepts that contrived the procedural processes.


Introduction
In studies of past material cultures, there is a dichotomy between the visual and the technological research approaches.The dichotomy between the visual and the technique originates in German philosophies of art, inspired by Kant's transcendental idealism which focused on the epistemological awareness and not the objects themselves, thus favouring the perception of the objects over the material aspects of their realization (Jamme, 2013;Hendriksen, 2017Hendriksen, , 2020)).Henceforth, modern art research has been dominated by the study of visual style, greatly in uenced by Meyer Schapiro (1953) de ning 'style' (re ected in formalistic characteristics) as a classi cation tool; and while the visual style was given the leading role, the technical aspects were demoted to a secondary, supportive -and sometimes even marginal-position (Belting, 2005;Hendriksen, 2017).In-depth study of production processes was allotted to conservation studies, a research eld that ourished as a result of the growth of the museums and the need to develop knowledge and methods pertaining to restoration, preservation and management of museum articles (Ainsworth, 2021;Schorsch, 2019).In the past decade, there has been an advance in Technical Art History, transpiring from within the museum conservation practices unto academic research, reinforced by Digital Humanities tools (Cardinali, 2017(Cardinali, , 2019;;Dupré, 2017;Hendriksen, 2020;Hermens, 2012;Jansson, 2021;Streeton, 2022;Weil, 2007).
On the other hand, studies of technological perspective tend to introduce only the practical and the mechanical aspects of production acts (Cardinali, 2019; Costin, 2016 and references therein; Dobres, 2000; Jansson, 2021; Parry, 2008).Indeed, studies of technological style, practiced in archaeological research since the 70s of the last century (Smith, 1970), were focused on classi cations of technique implementations, ignoring the visuality of the outcome.Accordingly, stylistic research and research into technology (and technological style) represent different foci of research, i.e., different research objectives and different research methodologies (Belting, 2005;Cardinali, 2019;Dupré, 2017;Fowler, 2019;Hendriksen, 2017Hendriksen, , 2020;;Jansson, 2021).
Contrary to the dichotomy between the technological and the visual methodologies of modern research, the Greek concept of techné incorporate the application of skill, the practical action on the material, the technical knowledge, the awareness of the creation action, the outcome, and the idea of creativity.The combination of these factors in the speci c act of production always depends on the context and portrays variations that differentiate it from other parallel acts (Brennan, 2016;Pollitt, 1974).In fact, from the ancient Greeks to the 18th century, the techné standpoint was the dominant narrative in art history writing -with the invested skill and the technical processes playing a major part in the creation of 'meaning' (e.g., Vasari, 1907Vasari, /1960).Here we reintroduce the techné approach as it enables us to propose a more integrative view on the production act, recombining the technological aspects with the ensuing visuality and intentions standing behind a concrete action of making.This approach will be endorsed through a computational analysis for the understanding of the procedural aspects in the production of rock engravings.
The study of rock engravings is a most prominent example of the mentioned above tendency to separate between stylistic research and the research into technology.The distinctive trait of the engravings in archaeological research is their dominant visual component, which demanded a speci c research approach, in-between standard art history research and standard archaeological methodologies.It is one of the few elds in archeology that advocated the visual style approach formulized in the discipline of art history (Francis, 2001), adopting it as a main analytical tool for classifying and interpreting ndings (Chippindale & Taçon, 1998;Francis, 2001 Archaeological studies of rock engravings suggested visual style as an indicator of their cultural origin (since the formal characteristics are the re ection of religious, social, and ethical values of a distinct society) accordingly classifying motifs, identifying images and attributes, and interpreting modes of presentation (see study cases in Anati, 2015Anati, , 2020;;Angás et al., 2021;Bourdier et al., 2015;Dupuy, 1995;Eisenberg Degen, 2012;Güth, 2012;Lankester, 2012;López et al., 1999;Mandt, 1995;Rothenberg, 1972;Seidl et al., 2015;Tebes, 2017;Tratebas, 1993Tratebas, , 1999;;Zeppelzauer et al., 2016;Zotkina et al., 2022).While the organization and classi cation of the visual data have been implemented using methodologies from the aesthetics/art history elds (e.g., Schneider Adams, 2018), the focus of stylistic research was the product, i.e., the outcome of the "artistic" process.Thus, it is not a coincidence that rock engravings were often classi ed as traces of "artistic" activity and were labeled as 'rock art'.
However, an evaluation of the outcome/product of the engraving process assumes that it is su cient to interpret only the visual aspects in order to understand the reasoning behind the engraving.However, interpretation of ancient visual language from a contemporary perspective is debatable, considering that visual vocabulary and the syntax are deeply intra-cultural (Bednarik, 2011;Layton, 1991).Given the absence of a real possibility to understand the ancient meaning of the forms and their arrangement, our capability to offer an interpretation of the elements of the visual style is extremely limited.This is especially true for non-textual communities' remains, or in the cases in which only a few examples are available.Any interpretation, beyond being subjective, will be based on models of art creation and consumption in complex societies, and an assumption that the aesthetic principles guiding contemporary scholars, i.e., that they are similar to those which were relevant for past societies (Francis, 2001), can be completely off tangent.Hence, while rock engraving research had been limited mainly to descriptive accounts or basic classi cations, here we present a different research path, which focuses on the procedural aspects of rock mark-making.
Our approach aligns with a growing tendency in the archeological studies of engravings to depart from observational methods (Moro Abadía & González Morales, 2020) and the search for the meaning of visual aspects (Tomášková, 2020), rather emphasizing and tracing the acts involved in the making of the engraving/s (Dobres, 2000(Dobres, , 2010; Moro Abadía & González Morales, 2020; Tomášková, 2020).The analysis of mobile engraved artifacts has been based on the identi cation of overlaps and directionality sequences of the engraved lines (Bello et al., 2020;d'Errico & Cacho, 1994;Farbstein, 2011;Fritz, 1999;Green, 2010Green, , 2016;;Lechtman, 1977;Leroi-Gourhan, 1993;Schlanger, 1994).In other cases, the study of the cross-section cuts along the incised paths has been considered as providing indication for the methods of execution.For example, incision's cross-cuts has been assumed to reveal the nature and state of the material when it was marked (e.g., During & Nilsson, 1991;Green eld, 2006) Contrary to the dominating trajectories in the research of engravings, the archaeological material culture studies had incorporated over several decades various methods of technological analysis (Burke & Spencer-Wood, 2018;Dobres, 2000;Dobres & Hoffman, 1994;Hegmon, 1998;Killick, 2004;Lemonnier, 1993) and the term technological style has been advocated from the 70s of the last century (Smith, 1970 credited with coining the term, see also Childs, 1991 Thornton & Lamberg- Karlovsky, 2004;Tschauner, 2006).As there are usually several ways to perform a task, and since the transfer of technological knowledge in pre-industrial societies depends on social structures (e.g.communities of practice), the technologies have been advocated as a product of the social frameworks (Bordes, 1969;Childs, 1991;Close, 2000;Dobres, 1999;Harush & Grosman, 2021;Harush et al., 2019;Lechtman, 1984;Roux, 2020;Valletta et al., 2021;Warnier, 2007;Wendrich, 2012;Wright, 2002).Accordingly, we suggest that by discovering the engraving techniques and the particularities of their implementation, considering the micromorphological characteristics of the engraved surface, we can gain insights into the sociocultural background of the engraver/s.Our assumption is that social practices can be recognized through modes of technique implementation, re ected in repetitions and variations of the micromorphological features as patterns that make up the praxis.
Still, the studies of technological style involve only the technical aspects, while we offer a broader concept for the reading of human actions.Following the advocates of the concept of techné as an analytic tool for investigating the "creation of meaning" throughout the productive acts in archeology (Costin, 2016;Dobres, 2000) and in arts (Staten, 2019) we suggest the techné concept as a more appropriate approach to the study of ancient cultures production processes, beyond the technical features/characteristics per se.
We demonstrate this through our newly formulated analytical method with results of a computational analysis of 3-D data obtained from rock engravings and toolmarks in Timna Park, southern Israel (Fig. 1).To enable it, we developed a software and methodology (ArchCUT3-D), presented in detail elsewhere (Dubinsky et al., 2023).We applied this methodology during a two-step analysis: in the rst stage we performed techniques recognition and outlined the micromorphological features within the vertical engraved lines in two engravings and two toolmarks.The variability observed within a speci c group of gures required the second step detailed analysis.Our results suggest that the micromorphological characterization of toolmarks left by rock-engravers reveal the particular technique mode and enables addressing the features of the visual language.
Apparently, through study of the technology it is possible to reach broader understandings that connect both elds -the technological processes and the visual values.We have embraced techné for characterization of fabrication procedure in the broadest sense, incorporating the duality of the technological and the visual.Unlike the study of technology per se, which focuses on classi cations of technique implementations without considering the visuality of the result, we are able to suggest strong ties between the two.

Materials
The engravings and intentional rock marks are located at Timna Park, southern Israel (Fig. 1) where there is evidence for 500 years of continuous copper mining and smelting activities, from the 14th through the 9th century BCE (Ben-Yosef et al., 2010; Ben-Yosef et al., 2012; Ben-Yosef et al., 2019).Several rock engravings are scattered across the area.Each engraving complex is considered to be unique, and no connection was observed between the different complexes.Several other intentional rock-marks were traced here, including mining marks, inscriptions and gra ti.We center in this study on two of the most remarkable engravings and mining toolmarks with the goal of de ning various techniques of rockwork on site.

Egyptian Stela Engraving (site 200)
A high located engraved Stela (Site 200) was discovered by Rothenberg in 1972 (Fig. 2).This site, as other sites excavated by Rothenberg team, had been numbered according to the order of the excavation works.The boundaries of the sites are not de ned, but there is an account of their content (see Rothenberg, 1972).Site 200 comprises a worship temple, discovered by A. Nussbaumer in 1964 and excavated since 1969 onwards by Rothenberg.The temple structure incorporates elements of Midianite and Egyptian architectural elements and artifacts (Avner, 2014;Rothenberg, 1972;Schulman, 1976;Ventura, 1974).The Stela engraving is located about 20 meters above the temple.
The overall height of the rock engraving is one meter, and its overall width is slightly more than half a meter.The Stela portrays engravings of ideological and royal motifs from the Ramsesian period, based on Egyptian prototypes (Schulman, 1976;Ventura, 1974).
Previous research presented this Stela through an iconographic analysis of the motifs and the iconology of the scene (Rothenberg, 1972;Schulman, 1976;Ventura, 1974;Wimmer, 2010).The human gures have been identi ed as king Rameses III on the left and that of the goddess Hathor on the right (Rothenberg, 1972;Schulman, 1976;Ventura, 1974); the gures are depicted facing each other.The Stela also includes two cartouches between the gures -one in the heads' area and one in the legs' area.(Rothenberg, 1972, Schulman, 1976;Ventura, 1974).A hieroglyphic inscription is placed under the gure's feet possibly pointing to Ramesses' messenger who was present at the site (Schulman, 1976).

The Chariot Engraving (site 25)
The Chariot Engraving is considered the largest engraving in the park's area (Fig. 3).It was discovered by the Arabah Expedition (1959)(1960)(1961)(1962)(1963)(1964)(1965)(1966)(1967)(1968)(1969)(1970) led by Rothenberg (Rothenberg, 1972(Rothenberg, , 2003)).The engraving is situated at the bottom of the cliff's vertical surface in a narrow creek at Site 25, with an ancient cooper mine located in its center.Today, the Chariot Engraving is located at about two meters above ground level, yet the original distance from the ground when the engraving was done is unknown.
The overall dimensions of the engraved scene are nine meters in length and about two meters high, comprising a total of 72 gures: 31 human gures, 33 animal gures and eight chariots.Its graphic language is minimal, composed mostly of linework with occasional lled-in shapes.

Mining Shaft NW2 and Mining Shaft N (site 25)
Walls with toolmarks (Fig. 4) were discovered in the partially collapsed mines near the Chariot Engraving (Rothenberg, 2003).These toolmarks constitute one of the many types of evidence of copper mining in Timna Park.The mines been dated to the Egyptian New Kingdom (Rothenberg, 2003).

Three-dimensional (3-D) Data Acquisition and Registration
The Chariot Engraving was 3-D scanned by POLYMETRIC PT-M4 structured light scanner (for a detailed account of our scanning work ow see previous publication Dubinsky et al., 2023).
3-D models were created with 0.29 mm point spacing in x-y.The z resolution is 0.036 mm with 0.086 mm depth accuracy.The scanning procedures were conducted at a distance of ca 120 cm from the engraving.The scanners internal program QTSculptor (QTS, Polygon Technology by Polymetric GmbH) had removed redundancies in the measured points, smoothing the mesh without a loss of accuracy, and re-projected the mesh to keep the precision.This registration was done only for the measured data, without any lling.No other ltering, masking, lling or smoothing processes were employed.The data was registered in a high-resolution mesh, with 0.22 mm average edge length (i.e., the average size of the triangles' sides in the meshed les).
For the scanning of the Stela and the mines toolmarks, located in hard-to-approach areas, we used the Creaform HandySCAN mobile scanner.The Stela Engraving was scanned while the researchers climbed to the high location on the rock by ladder and top rope (Fig. 5).The accuracy of the created 3-D models is 0.05 mm.This scanning procedure was conducted at a distance of 30-40 cm from the engravings.We were able to place the retro-re ective targets on the un-engraved surfaces of the rock near the lines of the engraving, thus preventing "blind spots" inside the engraved areas.All the optional scan parameters (optimization, ll, decimation or boundary optimization) were set at the default 0 value.The internal process requires VXelements software to create automatic and direct mesh output represented in realtime, allowing us to check the completeness of the dataset during the scanning process, contributing to the generation of a complete mesh on-site.The nal resolution of the Stela Engraving 3-D model is 0.36 mm average edge length and the mine's toolmarks is 0.25 mm average edge length.
3-D model of each gure in the engraving was trimmed by MeshLab software with a few centimeters of background (e.g., untreated rock surface) around it, without affecting the geometry of the les.The trimming was done to allow for focused observation and analysis.

Analysis of the Engravings
In order to examine the engraved lines, the authors used an originally developed ArchCUT3-D: MATLAB® based software (available for download here: https://sourceforge.net/projects/archcut3-d/).This software characterizes the geometry of an engraving by extracting 3-D slices from the available 3-D data (see Dubinsky et al., 2023).The ArchCUT3-D software is designed to allow the examination of the object through a two-step process: (1) slicing of the engraved line to obtain a visual representation of the incision's 3-D micromorphology, and (2) extracting measurements from the obtained slices (Fig. 6).We have studied all the existing lines in the engravings with the ArchCUT3-D software and selected those that show a repeated pattern that is not disturbed by erosion (Fig. 7).These were the sequences from which vertical lines were chosen for a detailed analysis.
We aimed to achieve identi cation of the technique used to create the incisions and identify variations in technique implementation.The techniques were identi ed based on the inputs of ArchCUT3-D and their association with known stone-working techniques by one of the authors (LD) whose expertise is based on years of practical experience in engraving of Supraduro gypsum.The number of lines selected for analysis from each engraving was dependent on the speci c circumstances such as the total number of the engraved gures as well as the number of the individual incisions, their distribution, the state of their conservation and their micromorphological particularities.

Vertical Lines Analysis
To conduct technique recognition in the engraved clusters and toolmarks under consideration, we have decided to focus, in the rst step of the analytical process, on the characterization of vertical lines.Our assumption is that they display the rock-marking gestures optimally and most advantageously since during their production the mark-makers are not required to adjust their movements to the direction of the line path (Dubinsky et al., 2023).With ArchCUT3-D the vertical lines were further segmented to avoid line edges or line-crossings.Then automatic sequence (AS) of slices and representation of each individual slice was extracted within each selected segment.The software ensured the presentation of the entire morphological sequence in this mode, not just the individual sections or cuts.Technique recognition was based on morphological characteristics including the slices shape, the number of minima points (MP) in each slice, the variations in MP number and placement along the path and the continuity and variations in the morphology of AS (for details see Dubinsky et al., 2023).
In the Stela engraving, analysis was conducted on eight vertical engraved lines in both human gures; four per each.Each path was marked according to its a liation, whether Hathor vertical lines (Hv) or Ramses vertical lines (Rv), and numbered (e.g., Hv0.2 = Hathor gure, vertical line, second from the top).The slicing width was determined according to the size of the incision and ranged from 8 mm to 20 mm.The slicing tolerance was set to 0.5 mm to provide an accurate analysis of the irregularities that had been observed.
In the Chariots Engraving, AS were produced from 30 human gures, 33 animal gures and 6 chariots, disregarding gures with no vertical lines.Each gure was marked according to its a liation and count (e.g., HF60 = human gure, 60th gure from the left, HF = Human Figure, AF = Animal Figure, Ch = Chariot).The slicing width was determined according to the size of the incision and ranged from 8 mm to 20 mm.Slicing tolerance was set to 1 mm.
In order to have a comparative sample, a slicing of vertical miners toolmarks found in two of the mines on Site 25 was executed.The toolmarks were sliced in analysis width set to 20-30 mm.The slicing was of 1 mm tolerance.
Slices for further computational analysis (aperture angle, depth, and full width at half maximum (FWHM) were selected as follows: when the AS was found to be consistent -the sampled slices were selected at a regular interval; when the AS showed signi cant uctuations -the most indicative (salient) slices were chosen.

Chariot's Engraving Human Figure Analysis Method
As the results (see below) indicated variability in the computational data in vertical incisions of human gures in the Chariots Engraving (compared with the consistency in other gures), we have decided to analyze the morphological characteristics and measurements in every line that constitute the human gures herein (31 gures, comprising 6-12 engraved lines each).Same work ow was implemented on every line of the human gures similar to that applied to the vertical lines referred to above (see 3.2.1).

Vertical Lines-Technique Recognition Results
The examination of AS extracted from the incisions of the Hathor and Ramses gures in the Stela Engraving, showed a consistent cyclic "waves" con guration.Each "wave" is in a straight path (no signi cant change in the minima point on x, y axes) with a deep indentation followed by slices descending in depth.The indentations appear on the path in regular distances (Fig. 8a).The majority of the slices have a single MP, with only a few slices with two MPs.The same morphological characteristics were observed in the AS from the mines' toolmarks (Fig. 8b).On the other hand, the AS morphology of the vertical lines of the Chariot Engraving presents a continuous linear sequence, with path continuity of MP points that vary in number -single, double or multiple (Fig. 8c).
The above suggests a single uniformed technique in the Stela and the mine's toolmarks, the "chisel-andhammer" technique (i.e., chasing technique).The morphology of the waves indicates that they are a result of the application of focused force in one spot, as the "center of the blow" clearly shown where the slice is deeper than its other parts, while initiating at the same level of the surface.The following slices re ect the shape of the line created with the impact of the blow.Occasional entry of additional MP signi es overlaps between the next blow and the previous impact.
In the Chariot Engraving we detected a different technique -the stroking technique-with three different implementation methods.The stroking technique can be identi ed by MP drawn along several slices, indicating a continuous marking gesture.The MP count indicates the number of times the tool's tip went over the given incision line.Thus, changes of MP count along the path helpidentifying the particularities of the stroking technique implementation in each case: a single MP indicates a single-stroking method, two MP indicate double-stroking method and three and more MP's indicate multiple stroked incisions.
To summarize the result of the technical recognition of vertical lines: we have found that the Stela Engraving was created using the chisel-and-hammer technique.In the toolmarks on the mine's walls we recognized the same execution technique as on the Stela.The Chariots Engraving vertical lines were created using the stroking technique, which appears in three different implementation methods: singlestrokes, double-strokes and multiple-strokes.

Vertical Lines-Measurements Extraction Results
The results of the quantitative analysis conducted on four "center of the blow" slices in eight segments of the Stela Engraving portrayed consistency in measured depth and width in all the segments, with low values in the standard deviation (Fig. 9a, b).The execution of the Hathor gure is more consistent compared to that of Ramses.
In the mines, as expected, higher values were obtained compared to those obtained from the Stela.Analysis of the "blow center" slices showed internal consistency of the quantitative data in each of the incisions.However, differences were revealed between marks produced in the Northwestern and Northern mine (Fig. 9d, e).
Comparative analysis between the Chariots, Stela and the mines toolmarks (Fig. 10) showed that the mines toolmarks are considerably deeper (Fig. 10a) than all the other engraved elements (probably due to the different purpose of the marking act -extracting material in the mines vs. visualization in the engravings).The Chariots Engraving and the Stela show great similarity in depth, indicated by the low SD measurements (Fig. 10a).The same trend is observed in the width measurements of the engravings (10b), except the greatest variability in width that present in the human gures of the Chariots Engraving (see below detailed analysis).A comparative study of the aperture angles obtained from the engravings gure's incisions and the mine's toolmarks showed sharper angles in those of the toolmarks (Fig. 10c).
The nal phase of the vertical lines analysis was to separate the measurements of depth and width per technique.Lines made by chisel-and-hammer technique showed consistency across the incisions of both gures in the Stela Engraving.The mine toolmarks showed higher values of depth and width than those of the Stela Engraving as clustered in Fig. 11.Vertical lines made by the stroking technique in the Chariots Engraving showed more consistency in the animal and chariot gures than in the human gures measurements (Fig. 12).

Detecting Technique Variability in Human Figures of Chariot Engraving
Following the results of variability, recognized in vertical lines measurements, AS was extracted from each body element of the human gures in Chariot Engraving.Technological identi cation was performed and measurements of representative slices of each element were extracted.Consequently, two techniques were identi ed -the pecking and stroking techniques (Fig. 13).
The pecking technique shows an AS con guration that does not have linear consistency; the MPs do not continue between the slices.The form of the slices is characterized by a signi cant width and multiple MPs.
The stroking technique is identi ed by MP continuity along several slices, indicating continuous marking gesture.Following the count of MP in the slices, we recognized three methods of implementation of the stroking technique: single-stroking, double-stroking and multiple-stroking.
In 94% of the human gures three or four variations of pecking and stroking techniques were identi ed (45% contain all four variations).Only 6% portray two variations.
The analysis of technical variability as a function of gures' elements (representing different body parts) showed consistency in implementation of the multiple-stroking and the pecking for marking the head and the body, as opposed to the diversity in the choices in the execution of the other human's gures elements (Fig. 14).
Analysis of the slice's dimensions as an outcome of the applied engraving methods showed that the widest marks were created using multiple-stroking and pecking.The single-stroked incisions showed the narrowest slices relatively to slices portraying other mark-making methods (Fig. 15a).
Analysis of techniques used to create the different elements of the human gures showed that the engraving methods identi ed as producing the widest mark -the pecking and the multiple strokingwere consistently used to create the head and the body (Fig. 15b).
Summarizing, great variability was detected in the engraver's choice of engraving methods for different body parts of the human gures.However, the patterns of technical combinations were overall consistent and repetitive, with regularity in the measurement values.

Discussion
We have shown that the examination of the micromorphology with advanced computational tools helps identify and sort engraving techniques used at Timna Park.The results of this technological identi cation unequivocally exposed considerable differences between engraved clusters.In Stela Engraving, we identi ed a single execution technique-the chisel-and-hammer technique -that was also recognized in the comparative sample, the mine' toolmarks.While in the Chariot Engraving, two different techniques were identi ed -stroking and pecking.The stroking was performed in three different operative methodssingle, double and multiple stroking.These two techniques with its various method implementations are identi ed as distributed throughout the entire engraved scene.
Our results revealed that the pecking and the multiple stroking produced wider-and thus-more visiblelines.As such, when we are approaching the discussion of the product of technological structures, we must rst establish that one cannot make a dichotomic separation between the technological aspects and the visual outcome.We must move beyond a simplistic division between the "technological" and the "visual," and instead explore the ways in which these aspects are intertwined (see below).
Our study had highlighted the interplay between the technology and visuality.This outcome led us to suggest the implementation of a more inclusive concept of productive act, which is incorporated within the term techné, which expresses the complex and interrelated processes of fabrication and meaningmaking (see section 1).Moreover, it is allowing us to propose the concept of techné as a united methodology for investigation of rock engravings, that will engage state-of-the art archaeological research into technological aspects, taking into consideration the importance of the visuality, both being parts of the fabrication processes.
We attempt to join the research trajectory that, starting with the beginning of the new millennia, had been advocating the techné standpoint in the art history research and in archeology.This term been revived by several contemporary researchers (see section 1), encouraging the transfer of the focus from the study of nal products to the study of manufacture processes or practices while considering the dual aspects of the production actions: the technical and the visual (Sawyer, 2012;Staten, 2019).
In order to suggest that the visual variability is intentional, and achieved through deliberate technical choices, we should rst discuss both the consistent and variable patterns of our data.

Consistency and Variability
Commonly, it is assumed that consistency of the engraving action re ects high level of engraving expertise and previous experience of the maker, while major uctuations resulting in an irregular, messy and wobbling execution, indicate an unskilled engraver, compensating for the inability to leave a desirable shows a consistency in the performance of the engraving and suggest that a consistent pattern in strokes application is a result of a skilled arm and hand movement, based on previous practical experience.
We have found that there is consistency of the depth and width values extracted from eight sliced sections of the Stela incisions.Results showing slightly more consistency in the execution of Hathor when compared to Ramses, raise the question of whether the two gures were engraved by the same hand.Based on the obtained results we cannot determine it with certainty.The other option to consider is that the slight differences in the quantitative parameters of the incision's slices belonging to the Ramses gure can be related to other factors such as the accessibility of the engraved surfaces or the position of the engraver in relation to the rock during her/his work (which can uctuate as the engraved area is not accessible from the ground and probably required some sort of scaffolding).Poor accessibility can affect factors such as hand's positioning, change in the tool grip and a change of the angle of the tool's working edge, which in uences the regulation of the engraver's blowing gesture.
Quanti cation of the aperture angle is informative as to the shape of the tool's working edgeoperated against the rock surface.A comparison of the slice's angle within the Stela incisions showed only slight variations, which can result from differences in the grip of the tool (as said, since the variation is slight, we cannot determine with certainty that it indicates another hand).To exemplify this point, we can refer to the shape of modern chisels.Having a wide face and a narrow face any change in the grip of the tool or in the direction of the incision can affect the angle of the tool's working edge touching the stone resulting in uctuations of the aperture angle of the incisions.
The mine toolmarks are deeper and wider than the Stela engraved lines, created by the same chisel-and hammer-technique.Herewith our assumption is that the mine toolmarks, as intentional and functional marks, bear characteristics of a regulated action de ned by its e ciency in removing rock material; given the functional purpose of the mining incisions (to remove as much material as possible) as opposed to the purpose of the Stela engraving act (accuracy of the image-making act) it is clear that intensity of the hitting gesture required in these two cases substantially differs.Thus, during the mining operation, the main emphasis is on the power applied while subtracting the rock surface and not on the visibility or accuracy of the marks on the rock surface.At the same time, the noticeable differences between the mining incisions of the two mines can suggest different hands.Assuming that overall, the goal is to remove as much material as possible, it is probably testifying to two miners whose blowing intensity was different -whether due to physiological difference or any other factors.
The angles measured in the mining marks signi cantly differ from the angles measured in the Stela engravings.The similarity of the angle in the marks from the two mines indicates the probability that the miners used a standardized tool.
The sharper angle of the mining marks corresponds to the main action of chipping off maximum rock' material.On the other hand, the wider angle of the Stela incisions aimed assumingly, to achieve more visible, distinct lines.
The quantitative parameters of the Chariots incisions reveal consistency in the angle and depth dimensions.Interestingly, the results of the slice's width within the group of the human gures are of signi cant variability, while those of the other elements -the chariot and the animal gures -show a consistency.Since the chariot and the animal gures are arrayed across the entire engraved area of the Chariot engraving, the detected consistency allows to assume that this engraving is an outcome of an operation of a single engraver or a group using the same engraving protocol 1 .This consistency enables us to examine the Chariot Engraving (excluding a few exceptions that will be mentioned further) as a uni ed product or as a product of a continuous act, in which an exception can prove the rule.At the same time, the consistency in the portraying of the animals and the chariots requires to understand the variability observed in the human gures.Assuming a single authorship, how can we understand the variability detected in this one group?

Techniques and Visual Language
We have learned that the same modes of execution were evenly distributed according to the gure's elements.Almost all the human gures of the Chariot Engraving show a combination of at least three mark making methods.In the majority of cases, the pecking technique was chosen to mark the head, while the multiple stroking was chosen to mark the body.The only exceptions are two gures -HF66 and HF83 -which portray only two mark making methods.When rst recorded those gures were named "the rider" and "the shaman" because of the different visual language and their distinct, apart, placement.A possible explanation for this exception is that these two gures were created by a different mark-maker.It seems that the pecking and the multiple-stroking produce wider marks in the depiction of human gures.Is the use of these particular techniques due to practical reasoning such as minimal labor investment?
Discussing the possible reasoning behind the variability in number of strokes invested in each line, we should discuss how many strokes are needed to achieve any visibility.The soft Nubian sandstone of the Chariot Engraving and its vertical surface allowed the engraver to invest more pressure during the engraving of vertical, top-to-bottom lines, resulting in an easy and e cient execution of the said lines.
Thus, in order to achieve any visibility, it would have been su cient to invest only one gesture, given the optimal stroking conditions (from top to bottom) and following the principle of economy of effort.Conversely, less convenient conditions will require repetitions of the stroking act in order to obtain similar visibility.Nevertheless, our analysis of the incision's dimensions as a function of the technique showed that the labor-intense techniques achieve a wider and thus more visible marks on the rock.Important to note that wider incisions gather more shadow, while the shadow is what creates the visibility.Accordingly, the body lines were incised more widely into the rock surface when compared to lines marking the limbs, which implies that the lines of the body, produced by more laborious technique, achieved enhanced visibility.We can assume that investment of repetitive gestures in producing body lines indicates an intention to manage the degree of visuality (through the employment of labour-intensive techniques).As for the head elements, theoretically it seems more e cient to produce them by fast marking technique, such as a contouring line.However, in most of human gures the head was produced with the more timeconsuming pecking technique, producing a led-in (and as such -more visible) element.
It seems that the chosen techniques do not follow practical operational considerations (intentional minimal labor investment) but entitles other factors that guided the engraving process (Fiore, 2007; Rivero & Garate, 2020).We suggest that there was an intentional technological choice related to the visual intensity of an incision.The mark-making methods (different line execution and shape formation) decode gurative expression, structuring the visual language of the Chariots Engraving.
Understanding the production processes in this way provides valuable information on the engraver's mastering of the visual language and the use of the visual rhetoric.We suppose that technological structures may serve, potentially, a key for recognizing visual canons, deriving from the cultural background of the engraver and the representational systems drawn from them (Gombrich & Bell, 1976;Semper, 2004).The wider incisions in the body lines may re ect an attempt to create an emphasis on that element and may be inferred as a key feature in the legibility of the sign.Similar suggestions can be made when examining the changes in the production technique in the head area.The choice of peckingrather than the engraver's primary method of stroking-in order to create the dominancy of the head, follows the same logic.As a result, it establishes a note of accord in the visual grammar of the engraved gure.This choice would mark the head as the visually dominant element, while the body would be classi ed as a subdominant element, with subordinate lines creating the other elements of the gure.The visual hierarchy of the elements structures the components of visual literacy.Consequently, we can link the former to the techniques used in their production.The computational parameters acquired from the analysis of technique distribution by element, re ect visual emphasis on speci c elements and thusvisual codes embodied through the hierarchical design of elements of the human gures.The technological variations, in what seems to be a limited grouping of schematic elements, form visual statements that regulate these elements' recognition and reading, creating perceptive characteristics (Fig. 16).
In sum, it appears that labor intense techniques of multiple stroking and pecking, used repeatedly for the body and head elements, did not create just any sort of visibility but were used as a tool for creating emphasized, directed visibility.Our results allow us to acknowledge the techniques distribution in the Chariots Engraving as a tool to decode visuality.
We have shown that the study of the engraving acts enables an understanding of the techniques and, as a follow up -the particularities of visual language and visual rhetoric that they regulate.We have indicated, with computational tools, that these two aspects are entwined and inseparable.
As mentioned above, the stylistic research has its roots in art history, while the research of techniques and technological styles has been endorsed in the archeological domain.But is the separation between the practical knowledge, its individual application (singular variations and skills), and visual rhetoric of the outcome is fundamental, decisive, or necessary?Our results show that while the technical can be principal, objective and generalized (Ingold, 1997), it also contains particularities of personal, skilled tooluse as well as reasoning of meaning-creation throughout the visual aspects of the outcome.Therefore, the Greek concept of techné (see Section 1) is not limited to practical skill with a material.It is both concrete and variable; its application depends on the intellectual, cultural, and individual context.Allowing to revoke the division between the technological and the visual, it is found to be useful in de ning analytical tools for unveiling the techniques, bound with the subjective reasoning behind their implementation (including the visuality of the outcome).Surely it can represent the united nature of the technical action with the visual language it constructs.Recognizing the regularities and variabilities in technique implementation, enables the revelation of the visual reasoning that, possibly, guided these actions.Thus, one can seek for links between societal structures and their values, as they are portrayed by the individual productive process.This is where great research potential is to be found.

Unlocking the Perspectives Behind the Technical Process
We can further speculate about the nature of operative choices driven by cultural and cognitive factors and discuss possible links between pragmatic and conceptual aspects of the engraving act.Hopkins, 2015).This conclusion demonstrates, once again, the presumption that stroking and pecking techniques are intuitive and do not require previous experience.
Di culties to distinguish meaningful (to research) stroked engravings from common gra ti, doodling or vandalism -sometime causing dismissing of engraved complexes (Fernandes, 2009;Hopkins, 2015) -is yet another re ection of presumptions regarding the low-skill nature of this engraving technique.In closer connection to our study case, this perception is well exempli ed in the contemporary erasure of the left upper part of the Chariot Engraving panel since it was suspected to be a product of a vandalistic act (Holzer, personal communication; Rothenberg, 2003).
On the other hand, the chisel-and-hammer technique is commonly associated with high-skilled practice that requires expertise and knowledge transfer (Meilach, 1970;Miller, 1948;Rockwell, 1990Rockwell, , 1993)).
The chisel-and-hammer technique can indicate that Stela's engraver was a member of an organized community.The catalyst for the standardization of chisel-and-hammer technique in ancient Egypt was the technological evolution in the eld of metal processing that allowed hardening the metal, resulting in development of metal chisels (Adam, 1966;Etienne, 1968;Freed, 1984;Lucas, 1948;Miller, 1948;Smith, 1949;Stocks, 2020, Weinstein, 1974).This technique became further common through time until our days, called a 'universal technique' due its optimal labor e ciency, alongside potential precision (Rockwell, 1993).Several studies in the eld of stone working showed how knowledge transmit and technological optimization demonstrating technological complexity (Conlin, 1997;Rockwell, 1990 The predictability of the visual outcome, required by the institutional visual canon, depends on the consistency of the technical action.In the current case -a stable implementation of a single technique. Here, we harness for the current discussion the theoretical perspective, originating in the theory of craftmanship.The standardization of effort/execution detected in the Stela Engraving is a sign of complex and technologically adroit social structures that demand "workmanship of certainty" (Pye, 1968).It is a testament of optimized protocols and catalogs of an institutional establishment, and the "certainty" or regulation and predictability of the execution, is signi cant to the establishment, in order for the nal product to correlate with its dictations, impositions, edicts.Complex societies are characterized by the specialization of labor which, in turn, dictates the pursuit of precision and regularity of the product of workmanship (Pye, 1968).The creators of the design canon and the experts of execution represent two different professional groups.The expertise of the engraving's executer is the outcome of the accumulated experience in the working groups, and they are realizing catalogs dictated by their culture, in order to institutionalize the design language.Unsurprisingly, the Stela Engraving 'relies' on familiar visual catalogs that originated in a hierarchical system of the Egyptian establishment, whilst clearly embodying the standardization of the operational act.
In contrast, the Chariot's Engraving techniques had little to do with sophisticated knowledge transmission networks or dedicated tools.Nevertheless, the technical variabilities (and their distribution) in the Chariot Engraving testify to a different kind of complexity.While we have established expertise, indicated by executive consistency (see 7.1), we have also observed technological variability in the human gures suggesting non-operative, but visual, considerations (see 7.2).This demonstrates the second de nition of Pye's theory-the "workmanship of risk" (Pye, 1968:20).It is a "free-process" workmanship (ibid.) that creates diversity on the smallest visible scale, recognized only at "very close range" (ibid., 64).Hence, we can envision the Chariot Engraving as a product of either an independent act or as an act of an engraver who implemented a protocol of a less technologically centralized society.The visual language at rst sight seems similar to a wide range of other engraved ndings worldwide ("stick-gures"), assigned to different groups.At the same time, we showed that the employment of techniques as rhetorical tools of the engraving medium, indicates that this engraver controls two aspects, the technological one regulates the perceptive aspects of the workmanship, possibly evolving/developing during the engraving act itself.
The study of the rock engravings originally linked the disciplines of archeology and art history through the use of style as a research tool.Nowadays, in an attempt to propose a renewal of the methodologies in which we study the traces of the acts of doing, a groundwork for research based on the techné approach seems to renew and strengthen the link these two disciplines.

Summary
The present study, focusing on two engravings in Timna Park, enabled us to construct a framework for studying technological choices, de ning and analyzing their outcome with a computational tool.We have shown that it is possible to identify not only the technique that was used, but also the characteristics of the visual language that guided the application of the techniques.We believe that the individual representational schemes, carried out by the engraver, can provide us with socio-cultural insights gained through the study of technique variations and the characterization of quantitative parameters.
Developments in digital tools harnessed for archaeological studies make it possible to advance our research approach and to offer progressive methods for exploring engraved surfaces, in order to gain a deeper understanding of the actions, skills and techniques required to produce them.
While recognizing the standardization of execution methods in the Stela Engraving, our methodology revealed that the Chariots engraver's decisions during the production process did not follow purely practical technological constraints.Indicative characteristics of production conventions and the variabilities in the technique application can serve as clues to the conceptual schemes that guided the engraver and may provide a link between execution techniques and visual considerations.The visual modes, when de ned or inferred through differences in the execution of features and elements, enable discussion on the "techno-visual codes" as a signature of mark-makers.The concept of techné can be fruitful for creating links between the principled and the personal aspects of know-how, with the ultimate aim of identifying social codes.Thus, it is being not only informative as to application aspects, but, on a closer look, conceals cognitive perceptions and perspectives that can be bene cial for socio-cultural characterization of the engravers.
Given the long history of occupation in Timna area, and as most the engraved clusters within it are considered to be unique, it is di cult to provenance their makers based solely on stylistic characteristics.
Our approach, i.e., a comparison between the production techniques of the engravings and the micromorphological properties of its lines, can aid and provide sound platform for comparison.A computational method for identifying ancient technologies means there is the ability to differentiate between particular techniques re ecting cultural conventions, incorporating aspects of material availability, geographical locations (see Dubinsky et al., 2023), level of technological development, societal connections and learning networks.
The analysis presented above, move us a signi cant step forward on the way to identifying the " ngerprints" of engraved complexes, and unlocking hidden concepts behind the creative process.
mark through repeated stroking(Rivero & Garate, 2020).In our previous analysis(Dubinsky et al., 2023), we presented the gra ti 'Gigi' found near the Chariot Engraving made by an inexperienced passerby by stroking technique.The low level of skill of the execution is easily observed through the differences and inconsistencies of the engraved lines measurements(Dubinsky et al., 2023).These results, as well as other experimental studies(Rivero & Garate, 2020), indicate that an operation based on prior experience

Figure 13 Technique
Figure 13 Technique identi cation allows us to gauge the operational knowledge structures that can be related to each of the engravings.The technological tendencies in the Stela (made by the chisel-and-hammer technique) and Chariot Engravings (made by pecking and stroking techniques), provide an indication of the differences in the technological background of the two engravers: they seem to originate from two communities whose level of technological sophistication differed from each other.
(Rothenberg, 1972;Schulman, 1976;Ventura, 1974;Wimmer, 2010)ical standardization and normalization indicate the existence of an institution.Therefore, following the identi cation of the chisel-and-hammer technique, we can assume institutional originsfor the Stela Engraving.The Stela's surroundings previously shown to be institutional, both through the studies of labor organization of the mining and smelting activities in Timna (Ben-Yosef et al., 2010, Ben-Yosef et al., 2012, Ben-Yosef et al., 2019;Rothenberg, 1972Rothenberg, , 2003)), and through the recognition of the royal content of the Stela Engraving(Rothenberg, 1972;Schulman, 1976;Ventura, 1974;Wimmer, 2010).Thus, we can further substantiate the conclusions arising from the results of our technological examination.While during our study we chose not to refer to the iconography, but to the technological aspects only, we can now point out that both aspects complement each other -the identi ed formal/institutional technique used to create the formal/ institutional content.Once again it can verify the Egyptian royal representative attendance in the Timna area.