Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cognitive and Interpersonal Predictors of Stress Generation in Children of Affectively Ill Parents

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Stress generation is a process in which individuals, through their depressive symptoms, personal characteristics, and/or behaviors, contribute to the occurrence of stressful life events. While this process has been well documented in adults, few studies have examined it in children. The present study examines whether cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors to depression contribute to stress generation in children, independent of their current depressive symptoms. Participants included 140 children (ages 6 to 14) and one of their parents. During an initial assessment, children completed self-report measures assessing cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability factors to depression. Children and their parents also completed measures assessing depressive symptoms. One year later, children and their parents participated in a semi-structured interview assessing the occurrence of stressful life events in the past year. Multi-level modeling results provided strong support for the stress generation process in children of affectively ill parents and highlight the importance of considering gender and age moderation effects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Given that an additive approach has been used to measure depressogenic inferential style in the adult depression literature, we also conducted all analyses substituting the additive approach for the weakest link approach. The results from the additive approach mirror those of the weakest link approach.

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z. (2001). The hopelessness theory of depression: A test of the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components in third and seventh grade children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(3), 241–254. doi:10.1023/A:1010333815728.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2008). Depression in children and adolescents: Causes, treatment, and prevention. In J. R. Z. Abela, & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent depression (pp. 3–5). New York: The Guilford press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Hankin, B. L., Haigh, E. A. P., Adams, P., Vinokuroff, T., & Trayhern, L. (2005a). Interpersonal vulnerability to depression in high-risk children: The role of insecure attachment and reassurance seeking. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(1), 182–192. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Sakellaropoulo, M., & Taxel, E. (2007). Integrating two subtypes of depression: Psychodynamic theory and its relation to hopelessness depression in schoolchildren. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 27(3), 363–384. doi:10.1177/0272431607302004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Sarin, S. (2002). Cognitive vulnerability to hopelessness depression: A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26(6), 811–829. doi:10.1023/A:1021245618183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Skitch, S. A., Auerbach, R. P., & Adams, P. (2005b). The impact of parental borderline personality disorder on vulnerability to depression in children of affectively ill parents. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19(1), 68–83. doi:10.1521/pedi.19.1.68.62177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Taylor, G. (2003). Specific vulnerability to depressive mood reactions in schoolchildren: The moderating role of self-esteem. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32(3), 408–418. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3203_09.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Zuroff, D. C., Ho, M. H. R., Adams, P., & Hankin, B. L. (2006). Excessive reassurance-seeking, hassles, and depressive symptoms in children of affectively ill parents: A multiwave longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(2), 171–187. doi:10.1007/s10802-005-9011-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96(2), 358–372. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adrian, C., & Hammen, C. (1993). Stress exposure and stress generation in children of depressed mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(2), 354–359. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.61.2.354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (2001). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Hogan, M. E., Whitehouse, W. G., Rose, D. T., Robinson, M. S., et al. (2000). The temple-wisconsin cognitive vulnerability to depression project: Lifetime history of axis i psychopathology in individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(3), 403–418. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1983). Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In P. J. Clayton & J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches (pp. 265–290). New York: Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1987). Cognitive models of depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1(1), 5–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the beck depression inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8(1), 77–100. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(88)90050-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blatt, S. J., D’Afflitti, J. P., & Quinlan, D. M. (1976). Experiences of depression in normal young participants. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 385–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blatt, S. J., & Zuroff, D. C. (1992). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition: Two prototypes for depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 12(5), 527–562. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(92)90070-O.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664–678.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (Eds.) (1989). Life events and illness. New York: Guilford Press.

  • Buss, D. M. (1987). Selection, evocation, and manipulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1214–1221. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chun, C. -A., Cronkite, R. C., & Moos, R. H. (2004). Stress generation in depressed patients and community controls. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(3), 390–412. doi:10.1521/jscp.23.3.390.35453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coddington, R. D. (1972). The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children: I. A survey of professional workers. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16(1), 7–18. doi:10.1016/0022-3999(72)90018-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., Ciesla, J. A., Dallaire, D. H., Jacquez, F. M., Pineda, A. Q., LaGrange, B., et al. (2008). Emergence of attributional style and its relation to depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117(1), 16–31. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.117.1.16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J., & Paul, G. (2006). Stress exposure and stress generation in child and adolescent Depression: A latent trait-state-error approach to longitudinal analyses. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(1), 40–51. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conley, C. S., Haines, B. A., Hilt, L. M., & Metalsky, G. L. (2001). The children’s attributional style interview: Developmental tests of cognitive diathesis-stress theories of depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 445–463. doi:10.1023/A:1010451604161.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davila, J., Ramsay, M., Stroud, C. B., & Steinberg, S. J. (2005). Attachment as vulnerability to the development of psychopathology. In B. Hankin & J. R. Z. Abela (Eds.), Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability–stress perspective (pp. 215–242). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • First, M. B., & Gibbon, M. (2004). The structured clinical interview for DSM-IV axis I disorders (SCID-I) and the structured clinical interview for DSM-IV axis II disorders (SCID-II). In M. J. Hilsenroth & D. L. Segal (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment, Vol. 2: Personality assessment (pp. 134–143). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibb, B. E., & Coles, M. E. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability-stress models of psychopathology: A developmental perspective. In B. Hankin & J. R. Z. Abela (Eds.), Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability–stress perspective (pp. 104–135). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gotlib, I. H., & Hammen, C. L. (1992). Psychological aspects of depression: Toward a cognitive-interpersonal integration. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(4), 555–561. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.555.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1(1), 293–319. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., & Abela, J. R. Z. (Eds) (2005). Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability–stress perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

  • Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(1), 128–140. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.1.128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Kassel, J. D., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2005). Adult attachment dimensions and specificity of emotional distress symptoms: Prospective investigations of cognitive risk and interpersonal stress generation as mediating mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(1), 136–151. doi:10.1177/0146167204271324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harkness, K. L., Monroe, S. M., Simons, A. D., & Thase, M. (1999). The generation of life events in recurrent and non-recurrent depression. Psychological Medicine, 29(1), 135–144. doi:10.1017/S0033291798007752.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hilsman, R., & Garber, J. (1995). A test of the cognitive diathesis^stress model of depression in children: Academic stressors, attributional style, perceived competence, and control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(2), 370–380. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.2.370.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E., & Metalsky, G. I. (1995). A prospective test of anintegrative interpersonal theory of depression: A naturalistic study of college roommates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 778–788. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.778.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E., Metalsky, G. I., & Gencoz, F. (2001). The relative specificity of excessive reassurance-seeking to depressive symptoms and diagnoses among clinical samples of adults and youth. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23(1), 35–41. doi:10.1023/A:1011039406970.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E., Metalsky, G. I., Katz, J., & Beach, S. R. H. (1999). Be (re)assured: Excessive reassurance-seeking has (at least) some explanatory power regarding depression. Psychological Inquiry, 10(4), 305–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, A. D., Feldman, S. S., Weinberger, D. A., & Ford, M. E. (1987). Uplifts, hassles, and adaptational outcomes in early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 7(4), 371–394. doi:10.1177/0272431687074002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C. (1997). The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 191–214. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (2003). Children’s depression inventory: Technical manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakdawalla, Z., Hankin, B. L., & Mermelstein, R. (2007). Cognitive theories of depression in children and adolescents: A conceptual and quantitative review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10, 1–24. doi:10.1007/s10567-006-0013-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. R., Hammen, C., Daley, S. E., Burge, D., & Davila, J. (2001). Sociotropic and autonomous personality styles: Contributions to chronic life stress. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25(1), 61–76. doi:10.1023/A:1026426832222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panak, W. F., & Garber, J. (1992). Role of aggression, rejection, and attributions in the prediction of depression in children. Development and Psychopathology, 4(1), 145–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Potthoff, J. G., Holahan, C. J., & Joiner, T. E. (1995). Reassurance seeking, stress generation, and depressive symptoms: An integrative model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(4), 664–670. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.4.664.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Development, 70(3), 660–677. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00048.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Lindberg, N., Herzberg, D., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology, 12(2), 215–234. doi:10.1017/S0954579400002066.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Safford, S. M., Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., & Crossfield, A. G. (2007). Negative cognitive style as a predictor of negative life events in depression-prone individuals: A test of the stress generation hypothesis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 99, 147–154. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.09.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saylor, C. F., Finch, A. J., Spirito, A., & Bennett, B. (1984). The children’s depression inventory: A systematic evaluation of psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52(6), 955–967. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.52.6.955.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. (1984). Attributional style and depressive symptoms among children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93(2), 235–238. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.93.2.235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shahar, G., Joiner, T. E., Jr., Zuroff, D. C., & Blatt, S. J. (2004). Personality, interpersonal behavior, and depression: Co-existence of stress-specific moderating and mediating effects. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(7), 1583–1596. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2003.06.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shih, J. H. (2006). Sex differences in stress generation: An examination of sociotropy/autonomy, stress, and depressive symptoms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(4), 434–446. doi:10.1177/0146167205282739.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shih, J. H., Eberhart, N. K., Hammen, C. L., & Brennan, P. A. (2006). Differential exposure and reactivity to interpersonal stress predict sex differences in adolescent depression. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(1), 103–115. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3501_9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons, A. D., Angell, K. L., Monroe, S. M., & Thase, M. E. (1993). Cognition and life stress in depression: Cognitive factors and the definition, rating, and generation of negative life events. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(4), 584–591. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.102.4.584.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smucker, M. R., Craighead, W. E., Craighead, L. W., & Green, B. J. (1986). Normative and reliability data for the children’s depression inventory. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14(1), 25–39. doi:10.1007/BF00917219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Orden, K., Wingate, L. R., Gordon, K. H., & Joiner, T. E. (2005). Interpersonal factors as vulnerability to psychopathology over the life course. In B. Hankin & J. R. Z. Abela (Eds.), Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability–stress perspective (pp. 136–160). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The research reported in this article was supported, in part, by a Young Investigator Award from the National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression (NARSAD) awarded to John R. Z. Abela. We would like to thank Martin E. P. Seligman and David C. Zuroff for serving as mentors for the NARSAD grant.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Saint Joseph’s University, 5600 City Avenue, Philadelphia, PA, 19131, USA

    Josephine H. Shih

  2. Department of Psychology, McGill University, Stewart Biological Sciences Bldg., 1205 Dr. Penfield Avenue, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1B1, Canada

    John R. Z. Abela & Claire Starrs

Authors
  1. Josephine H. Shih
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John R. Z. Abela
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Claire Starrs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Josephine H. Shih.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Shih, J.H., Abela, J.R.Z. & Starrs, C. Cognitive and Interpersonal Predictors of Stress Generation in Children of Affectively Ill Parents. J Abnorm Child Psychol 37, 195–208 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9267-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9267-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation