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The Colonial State, African Dog-Owners, and the Political Economy of Rabies Vaccination Campaigns in Southern Rhodesia in the 1950s and 1960s

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Abstract

This paper examines histories of postvaccinal breaks in immunity to rabies in domestic dogs between 1950 and the 1960s. It utilizes Veterinary and Native Commissioner's reports and newspapers in arguing that there is a gap in current southern African rabies historiography as it is yet to grapple with narratives about vaccine technologies. Current southern African rabies histories overly focus on white South African urban case studies. Focusing on the histories of postvaccinal breaks in immunity to rabies in Southern Rhodesia helps to explain why rabies became an ineradicable canine disease in southern Africa during this period. The paper focuses on the political economy of the mass vaccination of dogs, the costs attached to the Veterinary Department's decision to ignore other canine diseases in African areas, and how this, combined with other policy measures such as dog taxation, in undermining rabies vaccination campaigns. Overall, it shows that African dog-owners resorted to a myriad of responses to coercive rabies regulations. This complexity ultimately resulted in canine rabies becoming a difficult disease to eradicate.

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Notes

  1. Southern Rhodesia became Rhodesia in 1965, Zimbabwe-Rhodesia in 1979, and Zimbabwe in 1980.

  2. My analysis is based on the Southern Rhodesian Veterinary Department’s documentation of rabies outbreaks between 1950 and the 1960s. These documents reveal the interactions of the Veterinary Department with African dog-owners, the Native Affairs Department, the British South Africa Police and its correspondences with fellow southern African veterinary departments. The National Archives of Zimbabwe (NAZ) houses the following series: S3023, File 5/26 (Rabies, 21 August–28 December 1950), S3023, File 6/28/1 (Rabies, January–June 1951), S3023, File 6/28/2 (Rabies, July–December 1951) and S3023, File 7/20/2 (Rabies, July-December 1952). Another NAZ series that focuses on rabies consist of the following entries: S2710, File 1/2 (Veterinary Department General, January 1953–January 1955), S2710, File 5 (Veterinary Department Conferences and Monthly Reports, 26 October 1950–29 December 1956). This series captures developments within the department’s rabies eradication programs during the period under review. The other series consisting of S1173, File 254 (Rabies, 1929) helped in availing background information for this article. I also used unprocessed archival material relating to the period between the late 1950s and the 1960s. These documents are currently housed at the National Archives of Zimbabwe Records Office (NAZRO) in Harare. They consist of the following files: NAZRO, File S3105/11/1 (Journals-VRS, January 1954–1958); NAZRO, File 1877 (DVS Conferences), NAZRO. File V/98/2, Articles for publication, NAZRO, File 1835, (DVS and A/DVS Monthly Reports, 1957–1959), NAZRO, File R/2/10/1 (Veterinary Research Annual Reports: 1953–July 1964), NAZRO, File V/67/3 (Rabies Vaccine: November 1966–November 1967). All these archival collections are found at the NAZ in Harare.

  3. British colonialists derogatively othered African-owned dogs as bad animals, vermins and demonic creatures that deserved to die. They based their ideas on racism and religion. Ideas about good and bad animals came to be known as speciesism (a prejudiced belief in the importance of one species over other species). Colonized people across the world pushed back against these ideas as they fought to restore indigenous values.

  4. Southern Rhodesia Legislative Council Debates, First Session, Second Council, Salisbury, The Argus Printing and Publishing Company, 1904, “President’s Opening Speech,” 6 November 1902, p. 104.

  5. National Archives of Zimbabwe (hereafter cited as NAZ), S1173, File, 254, 25 November 1926, Government Bacteriologist (Southern Rhodesia) to Public Health Department, Public Health Laboratory and Pasteur Institute, Salisbury.

  6. NAZ, S1173, File. 254, 25 November 1926, Government Bacteriologist (Southern Rhodesia) to Public Health Department, Public Health Laboratory and Pasteur Institute, Salisbury.

  7. NAZ, S1173, File, 254, 7 October 1925, “Rabies Virus.”

  8. NAZ, S1173, File 254, 25 November 1926, “Pasteur Institute.”

  9. NAZ, S3023, File 5/26, 14 November 1950, “To all Veterinary Officers: Rabies.”

  10. NAZ, S2710, File 5, [Undated document], Veterinary Conference: Memorandum on Agenda.

  11. NAZ, S2710, File 5, 24–26 October 1950, Minutes of the Veterinary Conference.

  12. NAZ, S2710, File 5, 24–26 October 1950, Minutes of the Veterinary Conference.

  13. NAZ, S3023, File 5/26, 27 December 1950, Government Veterinary Officer Chipinga to Assistant Director of Veterinary Services (Research) (hereafter ADVS(R)).

  14. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 21 March 1951, “Suspected Rabies: Sabi Area.”

  15. NAZ, S2710, File 5, 24–26 October 1950, Minutes of the Veterinary Conference.

  16. NAZ, S2710, File 5, 24–26 October 1950, Minutes of the Veterinary Conference.

  17. NAZ, S2710, File 5, 24–26 October 1950, Minutes of the Veterinary Conference.

  18. NAZ, S2710, File 5, 24–26 October 1950, Minutes of the Veterinary Conference.

  19. NAZ, S3023, File. 6/28/1, 7 March 1951, Fort Victoria District to the ADVS(R), Salisbury, “Rabies Report.”

  20. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 15 March 1951, Fort Victoria District to the Assistant Director Veterinary Services (Field) (hereafter ADVS(F)), Salisbury, “Rabies Report.”

  21. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 15 March 1951, Fort Victoria District to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  22. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 15 March 1951, Fort Victoria District to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  23. NAZ, S3023, File 5/26, 31 October 1950, “Suspected Rabies Report: Ref No. V. 3.”

  24. NAZ, S3023, File 5/26, 31 October 1950, “Suspected Rabies Report: Ref No. V. 3.”

  25. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 30 March 1951, Fort Victoria District to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  26. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 30 March 1951, Fort Victoria District to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  27. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 15 March 1951, Fort Victoria to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  28. NAZ, S3023, File 5/26, 15 November 1950, “Rabies Specimen No. V. 5.”

  29. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 15 March 1951, Fort Victoria to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  30. NAZ, S2710, File 5, 24–26 October 1950, Minutes of the Veterinary Conference.

  31. NAZ, S3023, File 5/26, 2 October 1950, Director of Veterinary Service, Mazabuka, to ADVS(R).

  32. NAZ, S3023, File 5/26, 26 September 1950, Onderstepoort Veterinary Laboratories to the ADVS(R) (Salisbury), “Rabies.”

  33. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 25 August 19,951, “Suspected Rabies Report Umtali”. The vaccine produced by the Lederle Laboratories of the American Cyanamid Company was part of an effort to produce an efficient single-injection method of immunization that would confer immunity to an animal for its normal life span and reduce the occurrence of postvaccinal paralytic accidents. See Molner et al. (1955, p. 999).

  34. NAZ, S2710, File 1/2, Undated document, “Rabies in Southern Rhodesia.”

  35. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 25 August 1951, Melsetter District Office to the ADVS(F), “Rabies report.”

  36. NAZ, S3023, File 5/26, 2 October 1950, Director of Veterinary Service, Mazabuka to ADVS(R) (Salisbury).

  37. Veterinarians used both tests in the 1950s and 1960s to ascertain whether brain samples from a suspected rabies infected animal showed signs of rabies virus. A histological diagnosis was done by examining brain samples microscopically to detect negri bodies (signs of rabies infection), which meant that the animal had rabies. The other method, which they called biological, involved the inoculation of brain materials from a suspected rabies infected animal (specimen) into young mice aged between ten or twelve days. If the specimen had been infected with the rabies virus the young mice died ten or twelve days after being inoculated with the brain samples. Biologists used the two methods complementarily. NAZ, 3023, File 5/26, 26 October 1950, Acting Director of Veterinary Services, Onderstepoort to the Director of Veterinary Research, Salisbury, “Rabies.”

  38. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 21 December 1951, Veterinary Research Laboratory, Salisbury, to J. W Macaulay, Mazabuka.

  39. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 19 March 1952, ADVS(R) to J. W. Macaulay.

  40. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 22 February 1952, ADVS(R) to J. W. Macaulay, Mazabuka.

  41. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 19 March 1952, ADVS(R) (Salisbury) to J.W. Macaulay.

  42. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 2 January 1952, J. W. Macaulay to J. G. Christie, Salisbury.

  43. NAZ, S3023, File 7/20/2, 18 July 1952, Veterinary Research Laboratory (Salisbury) to Onderstepoort, “Rabies Vaccine: Viability Tests.”

  44. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 24 March 1952, R. L. Burkhart, Lederle Laboratories Division (American Cyanamid Company), to Dr Lawrence, ADVS(R), Salisbury.

  45. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 24 March 1952, R. L. Burkhart, Lederle Laboratories Division (American Cyanamid Company) to Dr Lawrence, ADVS(R), Salisbury.

  46. National Archives of Zimbabwe Records Office (hereafter NAZRO), File 1877, 30 September 1952, “Report of the ADVS(F).”

  47. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 15 March 1952, Tiffany, Shamva, to the ADVS(R), Salisbury.

  48. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 21 March 1952, E. M. Wilson, Shamva, to Veterinary Research Laboratory, Salisbury, “Rabies vaccinations.”

  49. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 7 March 1951, Fort Victoria District to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  50. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 8 March 1952, Melsetter District to ADVS(F), “Rabies Report”.

  51. Southern Rhodesia Legislative Assembly debates, Third Session, Sixth Parliament, Volume 28, Salisbury, Rhodesia Printing and Publishing Company, “Pounds and Trespasses Amendment Bill,” 6 May 1948, p. 70.

  52. Southern Rhodesia Legislative Assembly debates, Third Session, Sixth Parliament, Volume 28, Salisbury, Rhodesia Printing and Publishing Company, “Pounds and Trespasses Amendment Bill,” 6 May 1948.

  53. Southern Rhodesia Legislative Assembly debates, Third Session, Sixth Parliament, Volume 28, Salisbury, Rhodesia Printing and Publishing Company, “Pounds and Trespasses Amendment Bill,” 6 May 1948.

  54. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 6 May 1952, Melsetter District to ADVS(F), “Rabies Report”.

  55. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 19 September 1951, Fort Victoria to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Progress Report.”

  56. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 19 September 1951, Fort Victoria District to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Progress Report.”

  57. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 11 July 1951, ADVS(R) to Onderstepoort Laboratories, “Rabies Vaccines.”

  58. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 9 February 1952, Melsetter District Office to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  59. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 8 December 1951, Melsetter District Office to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  60. NAZRO, File 1877, 11 December 1962, Annual Veterinary Conference.

  61. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 30 April 1952, Victoria to the ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  62. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 23 February 1951, BSAP Mtoko, “Edgar Michael Oates states.”

  63. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/1, 13 March 1951, BSAP Mrewa to Chief Veterinary Officer, Salisbury.

  64. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 17 August 1951, “Specimen M.18-Chipinga.”

  65. NAZ, S2710, File 1/2, 19 June 1954, “Rabies Control.”

  66. NAZRO, File 1877, 20 and 21 October 1954, Notes for the Minutes of the Fifth Veterinary Conference.

  67. “How is Rabies Spread,” Bulawayo Chronicle, 8 October 1954.

  68. NAZRO, File V/98/2, 9 September 1964, “Rabies still Exist in Southern Rhodesia.”

  69. NAZRO, File 1877, 20–21 October 1954, DVS Minutes of the Fifth Veterinary Conference.

  70. NAZRO, File R/2/10/1, 30 September 1958, Report of the ADVS(F).

  71. NAZRO, File S3105/11/1, 30 July 1957, Report of the ADVS(F).

  72. NAZRO, File R/2/10/130 September 1958, Report of the ADVS(F).

  73. NAZRO, File 1877, 20 and 21 October 1954, DVS Minutes of the Fifth Veterinary Conference.

  74. NAZRO, File 1877, 20 and 21 October 1954, DVS Minutes of the Fifth Veterinary Conference.

  75. NAZRO, File 1835, DVS Chipinga Veterinary Department, “Monthly Report: October 1957.”

  76. NAZRO, File V/98/2, 30 September 1958, “Report of the DVS.”

  77. NAZRO, File 1835, 13 April 1959, DVS Bulawayo, “District Monthly Report.”

  78. NAZRO, File 1835, 6 July 1959, “Umtali Veterinary District.”

  79. NAZRO, File V/35, 10 April 1965, Umtali to the ADVS(F), “Monthly Report: March 1965.”

  80. NAZRO, File 1835, 30 June 1957, Gwelo Veterinary District Monthly Report.

  81. NAZRO, File V/98/2, Undated document, “A Brief History of Rabies in Southern Rhodesia.”

  82. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 13 November 1967, G. J. Christie to ADVS(R), “Rabies Vaccinations: Deaths. Comments on the Report from Wankie.”

  83. NAZRO, File 1877, 11 December 1962, Annual Veterinary Conference.

  84. NAZRO, 1835, (DVS and A/DVS Monthly Reports, 1957–1959), 8 August 1958, Umtali Veterinary Department, “Monthly report: July 1958.”

  85. NAZRO, File S3105/11/1, December 1956, Southern Rhodesia Veterinary Report (Field Branch).

  86. NAZRO, File 1877, 20 and 21 October 1954, Minutes of the Fifth Veterinary Conference, Salisbury.

  87. NAZRO, File 1835, 18 August 1958, Salisbury District Offices to the ADVS(F), “Monthly Report: July 1958.”

  88. NAZ, S3023, File 7/20/2, 10 November 1952, Umtali District to ADVS(R), “Rabies Specimen. U. 103.”

  89. NAZ, S3023, File 6/28/2, 1 May 1952, Melsetter District to ADVS(F), “Rabies Report.”

  90. NAZRO, File R/2/10/1, 30 September 1958, Report of the ADVS(F).

  91. NAZRO, File 1877, 30 September 1957, Report of the DVS.

  92. NAZRO, File 1877, 30 September 1957, Report of the DVS.

  93. NAZRO, File R/2/10/1, 30 September 1958, Report of the ADVS(F).

  94. NAZRO, File S3105/11/1, Southern Rhodesia Veterinary Report (Field), “Summary for October 1957.”

  95. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 5 December 1966, “Alleged Death of Dogs due to Rabies Vaccines: Bvumbura ICA.”

  96. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 29 November 1966, E. Bowes to Provincial Veterinary Officer, “Alleged Deaths of Dogs due to Rabies Vaccines: Bvumbura ICA.”

  97. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 5 December 1966, “Alleged Death of Dogs due to Rabies Vaccines: Bvumbura ICA.”

  98. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 21 October 1967, K. P. Lander (Wankie) to the Provincial Veterinary Officer (hereafter PVO), Bulawayo, “Rabies vaccinations: Deaths.”

  99. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 21 October 1967, K. P. Lander (Wankie) to the PVO, “Rabies Vaccinations: Deaths.”

  100. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 13 November 1967, G. J. Christie, ADVS(R), “Rabies Vaccinations: Deaths. Comments on the Report from Wankie.”

  101. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 21 October 1967, K. P. Lander (Wankie) to the PVO, “Rabies Vaccinations: Deaths.”

  102. NAZRO, File V/67/3, 21 October 1967, K. P. Lander (Wankie) to the PVO, “Rabies Vaccinations: Deaths.”

  103. NAZRO, File R/2/10/1, July 1964, Southern Rhodesia Veterinary Report (Field Branch).

  104. NAZRO, File 1877, 11 December 1962, Annual Veterinary Conference.

  105. NAZRO, File S3105/11/1, Southern Rhodesia Veterinary Report (Field Branch), Summary for January 1958.

  106. “Dead Dogs Stuffed into Drains,” Sunday Mail, 4 August 1974; “Drastic Action to Curb Rabies,” Sunday Mail, 12 December 1976; “Distemper Cases Up as Dogs Prowl the Townships.” Sunday Mail, 17 December 1978.

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Dande, I. The Colonial State, African Dog-Owners, and the Political Economy of Rabies Vaccination Campaigns in Southern Rhodesia in the 1950s and 1960s. J Hist Biol 54, 689–717 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-021-09661-6

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