Abstract
Over the last 15 years, Azerbaijan has doubled its protected areas territory to almost 10 % of the country’s surface area. Although the daily management of the existing strictly protected areas continues to pose a challenge, the establishment of nine national parks has been a remarkable achievement. At present, the designation of UNESCO biosphere reserves (BR) is the expressed political will of the government. By reviewing the last 25 years of nature conservation, and, in particular, the national park programme, we present an institutional analysis for integrative nature conservation in Azerbaijan. Against the cultural, social and political background, in particular the transition of the state, the challenges for cross-hierarchical governance of protected areas are outlined at the example of a BR. We find that the implementation of the UNESCO MAB philosophy, which is based on inter alia participation by administration, local communities and rural stakeholder, is hampered by this present-day political reality. The political situation and an autocratic governance scheme put successful implementation of a “model region of sustainable development” at risk. Education and empowerment are a prerequisite for eventual success; this is true for Azerbaijan as well as for other Post-Soviet countries with strong top-down regimes.
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Source: (Brunckhorst 2002)
Source: (Linsley and Shrives 2009)
Modified after: Stoll-Kleemann (2010)
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Notes
Out of these, about 20,000 km² are still occupied by Armenia, as a consequence of the frozen conflict regarding the mountain region of Garabakh.
Interview with a high-ranking senior official of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources Azerbaijan, Baku 15.5.2014.
Sensu latu the interval between one political regime and another, sensu strictu the change from an autocratic regime—here the FSU—to a democratic regime (Merkel 1999). Whereas in political sciences (O’Donnell and Schmitter 2013) the term ‘transition’ is used to describe the interval between one political regime and another, in economic terms “transition/transition countries” or “transition economies” describes countries in a state of transition from central command economies to market economy-dominated societies. Part of this definition are countries of the former East bloc in Central and Eastern Europa, states of the Soviet Union as well as Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. https://www.bmz.de/de/service/glossar/T/transformationsland.html Access: 11.02.2016. It becomes clear that in case of the FSU countries, transition of the political system always included the change of the economical paradigm towards market-based approaches. Often the shift of the economical process has already come to a particular ending point, while the political dynamic is still high and the consolidation of democratic elements is missing. The more general term “transformation” therefore might be a more appropriate term to be used to describe the ongoing political processes in FSU countries, which continue to have a deficit regime.
As done similarly by Linz (2000) in Lauth (2010).
As well as e.g. Kazakhstan and Russia.
Which can be based on Islamic traditions, the affiliation to a regional group, a clan, family membership or old party connection (Baberowski 2003).
In a WikiLEAKS cable from 2010, the US embassy outlines the clientele’s network on the example of sturgeon and its patron, Kamaladdin Heydarov (Minister of Emergency Situations) and his family, one of the two “most powerful families in Azerbaijan, both in terms of economic and political power.”: “…rost [the US embassy] suspects that Heydarov continues to control the State Customs Committee and wields influence over the Ministry of Taxes, the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources, and Ministry of Economic Development, which is now led by a former Ministry of Taxes official.” The power of these networks as well as the rivalry between them is indicated by the fact that: “…Heydarov has readily admitted to visiting U.S. delegations that he owns and operates the Caspian Fish Company, which controls the lucrative (and previously Russian Mafia-controlled) Beluga Caviar production in Azerbaijan…” (Lu 2010), although “…environmental groups in Azerbaijan say the government is not doing enough to tackle the illegal over-fishing of caviar stocks in the Caspian Sea…” (Esslemont 2009).
Fisheries, the breeding and hatchery as well as the protection of sturgeon falls under the responsibility of the MENR, but has never received any great attention despite the evident decline of sturgeon: “even poachers now often return from sturgeon fishing with empty hand…"and “…the population of sturgeon in the Caspian has seriously decreased, indeed”…commented Chingiz Maharramov, a former head of the Azerbaijan State Fisheries (Ismayilov 2008).
However, already in the Soviet Union, opportunities and “gains” were realised through official position in the state party apparatus, being part of the political nomenclature (Stefes 2005).
Accessed 13 August 2015.
The concept of “civil society” will certainly be based less on the western understanding of an opposition and critical independent networks but rather express the current political and social possibilities.
Interview by the author with an NGO representative, Baku, 15 May 2014.
The gross national income (GNI) per capita more than doubled within five years from 2700 USD in 2007 to 6200 USD in 2012. Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD/countries/AZ-7E-XT?display=graph. Accessed 12 May 2014.
E.g., the NGO “Green Bikes Club” regularly organised bicycle flash mobs in Baku to raise awareness of traffic problems; the Youth NGO “Nature-friends” organised campaigns to promote environmental education, to clean beaches, plant trees and celebrate world biodiversity days.
http://www.rferl.org/content/azerbaijan-election-aliyev-osce/27338288.html. Accessed 10 November 2015.
The self-image of IDEA became apparent, e.g., at the Caucasus CAT Summit in 2014 (http://ideacampaign.org/baku_hosts_caucasian_cat_summit.html#.VjIIzys9QYo. Accessed 15 July 2015), which has been an outstanding example of neo-feudalistic ceremonies - an event in which IDEA holds court in front of an international audience, including exclusively chartered flights and private tea ceremonies, yet with the exclusion of national civil actors. Thereby, and through actions such as the goodwill ambassadorships at the IUCN world parks congress, the ruling regime continues with an orchestrated approach to promote family members on an international and national charity level (Babajew 2009).
Babajew (2009) calls the formerly independent foundation, headed by the first lady Meriban Aliyeva, a “state in the state,” having an “almighty nimbus,” thus a very powerful position directly within the governmental structure.
But the young generation is not only a target group of IDEA, it also attempts to extend its influence directly into the governmental structures, which might be depicted by the following example: Proposed as a project against illegal tree cutting, IDEA established a telephone hotline where complaints can be lodged. Thereby, IDEA not only acts as first contact for these complaints but further presents itself as the supervisor of the ministry itself: “After the investigation by the IDEA mobile group on the entered complaints, the gathered materials and proofs will be sent to the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Azerbaijan to take necessary measures. IDEA will keep the process of measurement by the Ministry under its control.” http://ideacampaign.org/no_tree_cutting.html#.VgAHzJcuQYo. Accessed 21 September 2015.
Following a current tendency of all Post-Soviet countries, Azerbaijan as well complicated international cooperation at a level that makes it almost impossible for national NGOs to receive international financial support. http://www.bbc.com/azeri/multimedia/2013/02/130207_ngo_laws_video.shtml. Accessed 19 December 2015.
Interview by the author with an NGO representative, Baku, 14 May 2014.
“…latest move in the government’s systematic crackdown on independent voices. Over the last two-and-a-half years Azerbaijan has brought or threatened unfounded criminal charges against at least 50 independent and opposing political activists, journalists, bloggers, and human rights defenders. Most are behind bars…” https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/12/05/azerbaijan-investigative-journalist-arrested. Accessed 18 September 2015.
Since people believe that they really can solve problems.
According to the Blacksmith Institute 2007, the industrial city of Sumgayit, just north of Baku was regarded as one of the ten most polluted places on earth. Source: http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1078699.html. Accessed 15 October 2015.
Interview, author with an NGO representative, Baku, 15 May 2014.
Interview, author with an NGO representative Baku, 16 May 2014.
In 1998, the establishment of the Caspian Ecological Programme and the formal participation of all Caspian countries certainly was a highlight for regional cooperation.
Interview, author with an NGO representative, Baku, 14 May 2014.
Interview, author with an NGO representative, Baku, 19 May 2014.
Between 1991 and 1998, Russian conservationists used the window of opportunity during the collapse of the Soviet Union to enlarge their protected area network with 25 new Zapovedniks and 18 new national parks, thus increasing the total area from 26 to 41 million ha—about 2.4 % of Russia’s terrestrial area. However, in particular during Vladimir Putin’s first presidency, nature was regarded as being the ‘cash cow’ and resource exploitation for economic growth became a political priority (Müller 2014).
On 23 May 2001 in Baku.
Zapovedniks have been a central category of nature protection in the Soviet Union (Succow et al. 2001: 228) and the strictest territorial form of nature protection. They serve as ecological areas of reference and allow long-term academic research and monitoring (Succow et al. 2001; Tishkov 2002). Locations and boundaries of Zapovedniks are selected to combine area, representativeness, and hot spots defined by species-richness, endemism, or distinctiveness (Tishkov 2002). Zapovedniks correspond to the IUCN category I of scientific reserves/strict nature reserves. In Azerbaijan, they are called ‘State Nature Reserve.’
Zakazniks correspond to the IUCN category IV, constituting areas for species or landscape management. Today, they are called ‘State Nature Sanctuaries’ in Azerbaijan.
The detailed list and years of establishment are given at: http://eco.gov.az/en/76-list-of-especially-protected-nature-reserves. Note: in the table only the latest year of establishment is mentioned, some PAs have a history of establishment and abolishment of their conservation status, e.g., Göy-Göl National Park territory. It was first protected in 1925, and then the entire protection status was abolished in the 1970th due to new political priorities. In 1987, Garygöl State Nature Reserve was re-established, forming the basis for the national park designated in 2008.
In addition, in July 2014, the expansion of the Gizilagaj State Nature Reserve (at the Caspian Sea) with the purpose of creating the Gizilagaj Seashore National Park was agreed on by the Cabinet of Ministers (http://www.eco.gov.az/en/b-gorulenishleren.php, accessed 16 September 2015). By establishing this marine national park, Azerbaijan will further close a relevant gap in its protected area network.
By changing the inter-ministerial and administrative responsibility from the forest department to the protected area department, a stricter scheme of controls and fines could be applied. Moreover, this measure was aimed at reducing the corruption among state employees engaged in illegal timber extraction.
Arnegger et al. (2014) state that “In addition, some parks are still reportedly closed for visitors on certain days, tourism infrastructure and services in all parks are scarce, and some, notably Shahdagh National Park and Mt. Shahdagh, the second highest peak of Azerbaijan (4243 m), still require a written permission from both the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources as well as the border police, making spontaneous visits impossible. By contrast, large-scale investment projects in or next to some national parks such as Shahdagh and Altiaghaj are hardly compatible with the principles of ecotourism and sustainable development while putting conservation goals at risk”.
For example, the Azerbaijan Ornithological Society officially and on behalf of the MENR conducted bird monitoring between 2001 and 2005.
A detailed description of the political developments in the environmental sphere between 1990 and today is presented by Auch and Schmidt (2015) who outline eight chronological phases in the young history of Post-Soviet Azerbaijan’s nature conservation.
Personal communication by a ranger of the national park, 01.09.2015.
The project has been financed by the German Development Cooperation.
In an interview of the author with representative of national MAB committee, Baku on 19 May 20142014, a BRs development was not considered priority at present.
Which is a reflection of the site specific management within a biosphere reserve model (Pollock 2009).
Elbakidze et al. (2013) suggest that the “implementation of BRs as learning sites for sustainable development requires a change in culture and behaviour of BRs’ managers” at the example of Ukraine. Yet, the same is valid for many Post-Soviet nations, including Azerbaijan, as people engaged are often “belonging to the ‘old generation’ (pre-Seville)” …and… “…working with a new generation of BRs that are established ‘outside’ of the national law, managers might have to understand BRs as a societal process and be able to perform their activities through collaborations with stakeholders from different societal sectors at different levels without governmental funding…”
Different from countries like Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan without the blessing of fossil resource and with a less stable regime (c.f. Guliyev 2013).
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The authors thank the Cassiopeia Foundation, Germany for the financial support of the research and the Michael Succow Foundation, Germany for institutional support to prepare this publication. We also are grateful to two anonymous reviewers, who helped to improve this publication significantly.
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Schmidt, S., Busse, S. & Nuriyev, E. Government and biodiversity governance in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan: an institutional perspective. Environ Dev Sustain 19, 1953–1980 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9838-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9838-z