Abstract
To increase hydrophobicity of surfaces of coir pulp, carbon–tungsten carbide (WC) was synthesized and simultaneously deposited on coir pulp by applying in-liquid electrical discharge plasma, so-called solution plasma process (SPP). As a result, water contact angle of carbon-WC deposited coir pulp was 123.4°, whereas that of coir pulp was 82.8°. The carbon-WC deposited coir pulp was then used as a filler in polylactic acid (PLA) to attain composite films of PLA/carbon-WC deposited coir pulp. The deposition of carbon-WC on coir pulp not only increased hydrophobicity of coir pulp but also improved compatibility between the filler and PLA. Even at the low filler content of 0.75 wt%, tensile strength and Young’s modulus of composite films of PLA/carbon-WC deposited coir pulp increased up to 45.73% and 22.79%, respectively compared with those of neat PLA film. Furthermore, the presence of carbon-WC deposited coir pulp in the PLA composite films could enhance the formation of crystalline structure of PLA. Accordingly, SPP is an interesting tool for surface modification of coir pulp in order to achieve surface-functionalized coir pulp for using as a filler in green composites.
Graphic abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ang-atikarnkul P, Watthanaphanit A, Rujiravanit R (2014) Fabrication of cellulose nanofiber/chitin whisker/silk sericin bionanocomposite sponges and characterizations of their physical and biological properties. Compos Sci Technol 96:88–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2014.03.006
Bai H, Huang C, Xiu H, Zhang Q, Fu Q (2014) Enhancing mechanical performance of polylactide by tailoring crystal morphology and lamellae orientation with the aid of nucleating agent. Polym 55:6924–6934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2014.10.059
Banerjee D, Mukherjee S, Chattopadhyay KK (2010) Controlling the surface topology and hence the hydrophobicity of amorphous carbon thin films. Carbon 48:1025–1031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2009.11.021
Baturina OA, Aubuchon SR, Wynne KJ (2006) Thermal stability in air of Pt/C catalysts and PEM fuel cell catalyst layers. Chem Mater 18:1498–1504. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm052660e
Boufi S, Gandini A (2015) Triticale crop residue: a cheap material for high performance nanofibrillated cellulose. RSC Adv 5:3141–3151. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA12918K
Chen Z, Qin M, Chen P, Jia B, He Q, Qu X (2016) Tungsten carbide/carbon composite synthesized by combustion-carbothermal reduction method as electrocatalyst for hydrogen evolution reaction. Inter J Hydrog Energy 41:13005–13013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.063
Chen P-Y, Lian H-Y, Shih Y-F, Chen-Wei S-M (2017) Chemically functionalized plant fibers and carbon nanotubes for high compatibility and reinforcement in polylactic acid (PLA) composite. J Polym Environ 26:1962–1968. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-017-1092-4
Chimeni DY, Koumba Yoya G, Stevanovic T, Rodrigue D (2019) Surface modification of cellulosic materials for polyethylene composite applications. Polym Compos 40:E202–E213. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.24602
Cortese B, Caschera D, Federici F, Ingo GM, Gigli G (2014) Superhydrophobic fabrics for oil–water separation through a diamond like carbon (DLC) coating. J Mater Chem A 2:6781–6789. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ta00450g
Dong Y, Ghataura A, Takagi H, Haroosh HJ, Nakagaito AN, Lau K-T (2014) Polylactic acid (PLA) biocomposites reinforced with coir fibres: Evaluation of mechanical performance and multifunctional properties. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 63:76–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2014.04.003
Dong LL, Ahangarkani M, Chen WG, Zhang YS (2018) Recent progress in development of tungsten-copper composites: fabrication, modification and applications. Int J Refract Hard Met 75:30–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmhm.2018.03.014
Dos Santos FA, Valle Iulianelli GC, Bruno Tavares MI (2017) Development and properties evaluation of bio-based PLA/PLGA blend films reinforced with microcrystalline cellulose and organophilic silica. Polym Eng Sci 57:464–472. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.24447
Elanthikkal S, Gopalakrishnapanicker U, Varghese S, Guthrie JT (2010) Cellulose microfibres produced from banana plant wastes: Isolation and characterization. Carbohydr Polym 80:852–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.12.043
Espinach FX, Boufi S, Delgado-Aguilar M, Julián F, Mutjé P, Méndez JA (2018) Composites from poly(lactic acid) and bleached chemical fibres: thermal properties. Compos B Eng 134:169–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.09.055
Fabbri P, Champon G, Castellano M, Belgacem MN, Gandini A (2004) Reactions of cellulose and wood superficial hydroxy groups with organometallic compounds. Polym Int 53:7–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/pi.1396
Fonseca C, Ochoa A, Ulloa MT, Alvarez E, Canales D, Zapata PA (2015) Poly(lactic acid)/TiO(2) nanocomposites as alternative biocidal and antifungal materials. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl 57:314–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2015.07.069
Gao Y et al (2014) Highly efficient and recyclable carbon soot sponge for oil cleanup. ACS Appl Mater Inter 6:5924–5929. https://doi.org/10.1021/am500870f
Hossain KMZ, Ahmed I, Parsons AJ, Scotchford CA, Walker GS, Thielemans W, Rudd CD (2011) Physico-chemical and mechanical properties of nanocomposites prepared using cellulose nanowhiskers and poly(lactic acid). J Mater Sci 47:2675–2686. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-011-6093-4
Huang L, Lau SP, Yang HY, Leong ESP, Yu SF, Prawer S (2005) Stable superhydrophobic surface via carbon nanotubes coated with a ZnO thin film. J Phys Chem B 109:7746–7748. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp046549s
Hyun K, Saito N (2017) The solution plasma process for heteroatom-carbon nanosheets: the role of precursors. Sci Rep 7:3825. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04190-x
John A, Ko H-U, Kim D-G, Kim J (2011) Preparation of cellulose-ZnO hybrid films by a wet chemical method and their characterization. Cellulose 18:675–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-011-9523-1
Jun K, Hye-min K, Nagahiro S, Myeong-Hoon L (2016) A simple synthesis method for nanostructured Co-WC/carbon composites with enhanced oxygen reduction reaction activity. Sci Technol Adv Mater 17:37–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/14686996.2016.1140305
Kang J, Li OL, Saito N (2013) A simple synthesis method for nano-metal catalyst supported on mesoporous carbon: the solution plasma process. Nanoscale 5:6874–6882. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3nr01229h
Kim H, Saito N (2018) One-pot synthesis of purple benzene-derived MnO2-carbon hybrids and synergistic enhancement for the removal of cationic dyes. Sci Rep 8:4342. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22203-1
Kim DW, Saito N, Li OL, Pootawang P (2014) Solution plasma synthesis process of tungsten carbide on N-doped carbon nanocomposite with enhanced catalytic ORR activity and durability. RSC Adv 4:16813–16819. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra02380c
Kovalcik A, Pérez-Camargo RA, Fürst C, Kucharczyk P, Müller AJ (2017) Nucleating efficiency and thermal stability of industrial non-purified lignins and ultrafine talc in poly(lactic acid) (PLA). Polym Degrad Stab 142:244–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2017.07.009
Kramar AD, Obradović BM, Vesel A, Kuraica MM, Kostić MM (2015) Preparation of hydrophobic viscose fabric using nitrogen DBD and copper ions sorption. Plasma Processes Polym 12:1095–1103. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppap.201400228
Lei S et al (2017) Durable superhydrophobic cotton fabric for oil/water separation. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 533:249–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2017.08.012
Li X, Lei B, Lin Z, Huang L, Tan S, Cai X (2014) The utilization of bamboo charcoal enhances wood plastic composites with excellent mechanical and thermal properties. Mater Des 53:419–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.07.028
Li W, Wang S, Wang W, Qin C, Wu M (2019) Facile preparation of reactive hydrophobic cellulose nanofibril film for reducing water vapor permeability (WVP) in packaging applications. Cellulose 26:3271–3284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02270-x
Liang Y-Y, Xu J-Z, Liu X-Y, Zhong G-J, Li Z-M (2013) Role of surface chemical groups on carbon nanotubes in nucleation for polymer crystallization: Interfacial interaction and steric effect. Polym 54:6479–6488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2013.09.027
Liu H, Feng L, Zhai J, Jiang L, Zhu D (2004) Reversible wettability of a chemical vapor deposition prepared ZnO film between superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity. Langmuir 20:5659–5661. https://doi.org/10.1021/la036280o
Lizundia E, Ruiz-Rubio L, Vilas JL, León LM (2016) Towards the development of eco-friendly disposable polymers: ZnO-initiated thermal and hydrolytic degradation in poly(l-lactide)/ZnO nanocomposites. RSC Adv 6:15660–15669. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra24604k
Lu X, He J, Xie J, Zhou Y, Liu S, Zhu Q, Lu H (2020) Preparation of hydrophobic hierarchical pore carbon-silica composite and its adsorption performance toward volatile organic compounds. J Environ Sci (China) 87:39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.05.003
Macedo MJP, Silva GS, Feitor MC, Costa THC, Ito EN, Melo JDD (2020) Surface modification of kapok fibers by cold plasma surface treatment. J Mater Res Technol 9:2467–2476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.12.077
Morishita T, Ueno T, Panomsuwan G, Hieda J, Yoshida A, Bratescu MA, Saito N (2016) Fastest formation routes of nanocarbons in solution plasma processes. Sci Rep 6:36880. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36880
Nam TH, Ogihara S, Kobayashi S (2012) Interfacial, mechanical and thermal properties of coir fiber-reinforced Poly(Lactic Acid) biodegradable composites. Adv Compos Mater 21:103–122. https://doi.org/10.1163/156855112X629540
Nemoto S, Ueno T, Hieda J, Bratescu MA, Saito N, Watthanaphanit A (2017) Simple introduction of carboxyl head group with alkyl spacer onto multiwalled carbon nanotubes by solution plasma process. Jpn J Appl Phys 56. https://doi.org/10.7567/JJAP.56.096202
Noh A, Rajanaidu N, Kushairi A, Mohd Rafii Y, Mohd Din A, Mohd Isa ZA, Saleh G (2002) Variability in fatty acids composition, iodine value and carotene content in the MPOB oil palm germplasm collection from Angola. J Oil Palm Res 14:18–23
Panomsuwan G, Ishizaki T, Saito N (2015) Nitrogen-doped carbon nanoparticles derived from acrylonitrile plasma for electrochemical oxygen reduction. Phys Chem Chem Phys 17:6227–6232. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4cp05995f
Panomsuwan G, Saito N, Ishizaki T (2016) Fe–N-doped carbon-based composite as an efficient and durable electrocatalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction. RSC Adv 6:114553–114559. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra24214f
Piekarska K, Sowinski P, Piorkowska E, Haque MMU, Pracella M (2016) Structure and properties of hybrid PLA nanocomposites with inorganic nanofillers and cellulose fibers. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 82:34–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2015.11.019
Prada F, Ayala-Diaz IM, Delgado W, Ruiz-Romero R, Romero HM (2011) Effect of fruit ripening on content and chemical composition of oil from three oil palm cultivars (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) grown in Colombia. J Agric Food Chem 59:10136–10142. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf201999d
Ramesh P, Prasad BD, Narayana KL (2020) Effect of fiber hybridization and montmorillonite clay on properties of treated kenaf/aloe vera fiber reinforced PLA hybrid nanobiocomposite. Cellulose 27:6977–6993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-020-03268-6
Rival A, Levang P (2015) The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis): research challenges beyond controversies. Palms 59:33–49
Rosa ID, Iannoni A, Kenny J, Puglia D, Santulli C, Sarasini F, Terenzi A (2011) Poly(lactic acid)/Phormium tenax composites: morphology and thermo-mechanical behavior. Polym Compos 32:1362–1368. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.21159
Saito N, Hieda J, Takai O (2009) Synthesis process of gold nanoparticles in solution plasma. Thin Solid Films 518:912–917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2009.07.156
Salifairus MJ, Abd Hamid SB, Soga T, Alrokayan SAH, Khan HA, Rusop M (2016) Structural and optical properties of graphene from green carbon source via thermal chemical vapor deposition. J Mater Res 31:1947–1956. https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2016.200
Sambanthamurthi R, Sundram K, Tan Y (2000) Chemistry and biochemistry of palm oil. Prog in Lipid Res 39:507–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-7827(00)00015-1
Sedighi A, Montazer M, Samadi N (2014) Synthesis of nano Cu2O on cotton: morphological, physical, biological and optical sensing characterizations. Carbohydr Polym 110:489–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.04.030
Shang HM, Wang Y, Takahashi K, Cao GZ, Li D, Xia YN (2005) Nanostructured superhydrophobic surfaces. J Mater Sci 40:3587–3591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-2892-9
Shateri Khalil-Abad M, Yazdanshenas ME (2010) Superhydrophobic antibacterial cotton textiles. J Colloid Interface Sci 351:293–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2010.07.049
Shi H et al (2014) Ultrasonication assisted preparation of carbonaceous nanoparticles modified polyurethane foam with good conductivity and high oil absorption properties. Nanoscale 6:13748–13753. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4nr04360j
Sivkov D et al. (2020) Studies of buried layers and interfaces of Tungsten carbide coatings on the MWCNT Surface by XPS and NEXAFS Spectroscopy. Appl Sci 10(14):4736. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10144736
Suriani AB, Azira AA, Nik SF, Md Nor R, Rusop M (2009) Synthesis of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes using natural palm oil as carbon precursor. Mater Lett 63:2704–2706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2009.09.048
Suryanegara L, Nakagaito AN, Yano H (2010) Thermo-mechanical properties of microfibrillated cellulose-reinforced partially crystallized PLA composites. Cellulose 17:771–778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-010-9419-5
Suzuki T, Inoue S, Ando Y (2010) Catalytic effect of different forms of iron in purification of single-walled carbon nanotubes. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 10:3924–3928. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2010.1970
Tanaka S, Bataev I, Oda H, Hokamoto K (2018) Synthesis of metastable cubic tungsten carbides by electrical explosion of tungsten wire in liquid paraffin. Adv Power Technol 29:2447–2455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2018.06.025
Trilokesh C, Uppuluri KB (2019) Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from jackfruit peel. Scientific Reports 9:16709. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-53412-x
Uma Maheswari C, Obi Reddy K, Muzenda E, Guduri BR, Varada Rajulu A (2012) Extraction and characterization of cellulose microfibrils from agricultural residue—Cocos nucifera L. Biomass Bioenergy 46:555–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.06.039
Wan Hafizi Wan I, Ishak A, Suria R, Mohd MCIA (2018) Gamma irradiation-assisted synthesis of cellulose nanocrystal-reinforced gelatin hydrogels. Nanomaterials 8(10):749. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano8100749
Wang W, Wang Z, Wang J, Zhong C-J, Liu C-J (2017) Highly active and stable Pt–Pd alloy catalysts synthesized by room-temperature electron reduction for oxygen reduction reaction. Adv Sci 4:1600486. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201600486
Xiao N, Zhou Y, Ling Z, Qiu J (2013) Synthesis of a carbon nanofiber/carbon foam composite from coal liquefaction residue for the separation of oil and water. Carbon 59:530–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2013.03.051
Zhao L, Liu X, Zhang R, He H, Jin T, Zhang J (2014) Unique morphology in polylactide/graphene oxide nanocomposites. J Macromol Sci B 54:45–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222348.2014.984574
Zhou Y, Wang B, Song X, Li E, Li G, Zhao S, Yan H (2006) Control over the wettability of amorphous carbon films in a large range from hydrophilicity to super-hydrophobicity. Appl Surf Sci 253:2690–2694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2006.05.118
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the supports from the Thai Government Budget Grant under the grant number 255245. Ratchadapisek Sompot Endowment Fund from Chulalongkorn University under grant number GCUGR1125613107D and from JST/CREST under the grant number GJPMJCR12L1. This work was also partially supported by JSPS Core-to-Core Program, B. Asia-Africa Science Platforms and Chulalongkorn University by Office of International Affairs Scholarship for Short-term Research. NB would like to thank the Center of excellence on Petrochemical and Materials Technology (PETROMAT) for providing her a Ph.D. Scholarship under the grant number 01-04-01-001327.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Investigation and Writing—Original Draft: Nichapat Boonyeun; Funding acquisition, Conceptualization, Supervision and Writing—Review & Editing: Ratana Rujiravanit; Resources: Nagahiro Saito. All author approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Boonyeun, N., Rujiravanit, R. & Saito, N. Deposition of carbon–tungsten carbide on coir pulp to improve its compatibility with polylactic acid. Cellulose 28, 4119–4136 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-021-03799-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-021-03799-6