Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Impact of Attachment-Based Parenting Interventions on Externalizing Behaviors in Toddlers and Preschoolers: A Systematic Narrative Review

  • Review
  • Published:
Child & Youth Care Forum Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background

Systematic reviews have shown attachment-based parenting programs to lead to improvements in parenting sensitivity and infant attachment, but none have focused specifically on the impact of attachment-based parenting programs on externalizing symptoms in young children.

Objective

The objective of this study was to review published randomized controlled trial evidence regarding the impact of attachment-based early parenting interventions on externalizing behaviors in children aged 1–5 years.

Methods

A systematic search of published literature available through to May 2020 was conducted. Seven published papers reporting results from trials testing six attachment-based parenting interventions were identified.

Results

Three of the seven programs were shown to be associated with statistically significant improvements in child externalizing behavior (Helping Encourage Affect Regulation, Child-Parent Psychotherapy, Parent–Child Interaction Therapy—Toddlers). For one program (Child-Parent Psychotherapy), there was also evidence in one study that improvements in child externalizing behaviors were sustained at 6-month follow-up. A number of methodological limitations were present among the studies identified, most commonly reliance on parent-report measures of externalizing behavior.

Conclusions

Taken together, results indicate that parenting interventions designed to promote secure parent–child attachment relationships may be effective in reducing externalizing behaviors in children aged 1–5 years of age. Further research is required to test programs in different populations and with longer follow-up times.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Availability of data and material

Data available on request.

References

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA Preschool forms and profiles. University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth & Families.

  • Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (1978). Patterns of attachment: Assessed in the strange situation and at home. Erlbaum.

  • Alink, L. R. A., Mesman, J., Van Zeijl, J., Stolk, M. N., Juffer, F., Koot, H. M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2006). The early childhood aggression curve: Development of physical aggression in 10- to 50-month-old children. Child Development, 77(4), 954–966. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00912.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2005). Disorganized infant attachment and preventive interventions: A review and meta-analysis. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 191–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20046

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 195. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.195

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss, Vol 1: Attachment. Basic Books.

  • Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.

  • Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. A. (2008). Internal working models in attachment relationships: A construct revisited. In J. S. Cassidy, P.R. (Ed.), Handbook of Attachment (pp. 89–114). Guilford Press.

  • Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., Fergusson, D., Horwood, J. L., Loeber, R., Laird, R., Lynam, D. R., Moffitt, T. E., Pettit, G. S., & Vitaro, F. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 222–245. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.39.2.222

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, J., Brett, B. E., Gross, J. T., Stern, J. A., Martin, D. R., Mohr, J. J., & Woodhouse, S. S. (2017). Circle of security-parenting: A randomized controlled trial in head start. Development and Psychopathology, 29(2), 651–673. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000244

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chacko, A., Jensen, S. A., Lowry, L. S., Cornwell, M., Chimklis, A., Chan, E., Lee, D., & Pulgarin, B. (2016). Engagement in behavioral parent training: Review of the literature and implications for practice. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 19(3), 204–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-016-0205-2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, E., Haby, M. M., Toma, T. S., De Bortoli, M. C., Illanes, E., Oliveros, M. J., & Barreto, J. O. M. (2020). Knowledge translation strategies for dissemination with a focus on healthcare recipients: An overview of systematic reviews. Implementation Science, 15(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-020-0974-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., & Powell, B. (2009). Facilitator DVD Manual 5.0. Circle of Security Parenting: A relationship based parenting program. Circle of Security International.

  • Danko, C. M., Garbacz, L. L., & Budd, K. S. (2016). Outcomes of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy in an urban community clinic: A comparison of treatment completers and dropouts. Children and Youth Services Review, 60, 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.11.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K. A., Bierman, K. L., Coie, J. D., Greenberg, M. T., Lochman, J. E., McMahon, R. J., Pinderhughes, E. E., & the Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2015). Impact of early intervention on psychopathology, crime, and well-being at age 25. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13060786

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eyberg, S. M. (1988). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: Integration of traditional and behavioral concerns. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 10, 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1300/J019v10n01_04

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eyberg, S. M., & Pincus, D. (1999). ECBI & SESBI-R: Eyberg child behavior inventory and Sutter-Eyberg student behavior inventory-revised: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.

  • Eyberg, S., Chase, R., Fernandez, M., & Nelson, M. (2014). Dyadic parent-child interaction coding system (DPICS) clinical manual (4th ed.). PCIT International.

  • Fabiano, G. A., Schatz, N. K., & Jerome, S. (2016). Parental preferences for early intervention programming examined using best–worst scaling methodology. Child & Youth Care Forum, 45(5), 655–673. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-016-9348-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fearon, R., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., Van IJzendoorn, M., Lapsley, A., & Roisman, G. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children’s externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81(2), 435–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01405.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forgatch, M. S., & Patterson, G. R. (2010). Parent management training—Oregon model: An intervention for antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. In J. R. Weisz & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (pp. 159–178). Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, E. M., Jones, D. E., & The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2005). The high costs of aggression: Public expenditures resulting from conduct disorder. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 1167–1772. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.061424

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friars, P. M., & Mellor, D. J. (2007). Drop out from behavioral management training programs for ADHD: A prospective study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16(3), 427–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9096-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girard, E. I., Wallace, N. M., Kohlhoff, J. R., Morgan, S. S. J., & McNeil, C. B. (2018). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with Toddlers (PCIT-T): Improving attachment and emotion regulation. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93251-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girard, L.-C., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D., & Côté, S. M. (2019). Development of aggression subtypes from childhood to adolescence: A group-based multi-trajectory modelling perspective. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(5), 825–838. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0488-5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawes, D. J., Price, M. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2014). Callous-unemotional traits and the treatment of conduct problems in childhood and adolescence: A comprehensive review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17(3), 248–267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-014-0167-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay, D. F., Waters, C. S., Perra, O., Swift, N., Kairis, V., Phillips, R., Jones, R., Goodyer, I., Harold, G., & Thapar, A. (2014). Precursors to aggression are evident by 6 months of age. Developmental Science, 17(3), 471–480. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12133

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, J. P., Altman, D. G., Gøtzsche, P. C., Jüni, P., Moher, D., Oxman, A. D., Savović, J., Schulz, K. F., Weeks, L., & Sterne, J. A. (2011). The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ, 343, d5928. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d5928

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, J., & Green, S. (2011). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions version 5.1.0. https://training.cochrane.org/handbook

  • Hoffman, K. T., Marvin, R. S., Cooper, G., & Powell, B. (2006). Changing toddlers’ and preschoolers’ attachment classifications: The circle of security intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 1017. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.1017

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Juffer, F., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2018). Working with Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD): A case study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(8), 1346–1357. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22645

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Juffer, F., Bakermans-Kranenberg, M. J., & Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2014). Attachment-based interventions: Sensitive parenting is the key to positive parent-child relationships. In P. Holmes & S. Farnfield (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Attachment: Implications and Interventions (pp. 83–103). Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juffer, F., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. (2018). Video-Feedback Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline: Development and meta-analytic evidence for its effectiveness. In H. Steele & M. Steele (Eds.), Handbook of attachment-based interventions (pp. 1–26). The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juffer, F., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2015). Manual Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) (version 3.0). Leiden University.

  • Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H., Milne, B. J., & Poulton, R. (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 709–717. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.7.709

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kohlhoff, J., Morgan, S., Briggs, N., Egan, R., & Niec, L. (2021). Parent-child interaction therapy with Toddlers: A community-based randomized controlled trial with children aged 14–24 months. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 50, 411–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1723599

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landy, S., & Menna, R. (2006). An evaluation of a group intervention for parents with aggressive young children: Improvements in child functioning, maternal confidence, parenting knowledge and attitudes. Early Child Development and Care, 176(6), 605–620. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430500147425

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Letourneau, N., Tryphonopoulos, P., Giesbrecht, G., Dennis, C. L., Bhogal, S., & Watson, B. (2015). Narrative and meta-analytic review of interventions aiming to improve maternal-child attachment security. Infant Mental Health Journal, 36(4), 366–387. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21525

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenstein, P., Cederlöf, M., Lundström, S., D’Onofrio, B. M., Anckarsäter, H., Larsson, H., & Pettersson, E. (2020). Associations between conduct problems in childhood and adverse outcomes in emerging adulthood: A longitudinal Swedish nationwide twin cohort. Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(7), 798–806. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A. F. (2004). Child-Parent Psychotherapy: A relationship-based approach to the treatment of mental health disorders in infancy and early childhood. In A. J. Sameroff, S. C. McDonough, & K. L. Rosenblum (Eds.), Treating parent-infant relationship problems: Strategies for intervention (pp. 97–122). Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A. F., Van Horn, P., & Ippen, C. G. (2005). Toward evidence-based treatment: Child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(12), 1241–1248. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000181047.59702.58

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A. F., Ghosh Ippen, C., & Van Horn, P. (2006). Child-parent psychotherapy: 6-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(8), 913–918. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000222784.03735.92

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of an insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In T. B. Brazelton & M. W. Yogman (Eds.), Affective development in infancy (pp. 95–124). Ablex Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCart, M. R., Priester, P. E., Davies, W. H., & Azen, R. (2006). Differential effectiveness of behavioral parent-training and cognitive-behavioral therapy for antisocial youth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(4), 527–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9031-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Menting, A. T. A., de Castro, B. O., & Matthys, W. (2013). Effectiveness of the Incredible Years parent training to modify disruptive and prosocial child behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 33, 901–913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.07.006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. BJM, 339(1), b2535–b2535. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b2535

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moss, E., Dubois-Comtois, K., Cyr, C., Tarabulsy, G. M., St-Laurent, D., & Bernier, A. (2011). Efficacy of a home-visiting intervention aimed at improving maternal sensitivity, child attachment, and behavioral outcomes for maltreated children: A randomized control trial. Development and Psychopathology, 23(1), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000738

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2013). Antisocial behaviour and conduct disorders in children and young people: recognition and management. Clinical guideline. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg158

  • Niec, L. (Ed.). (2018). Handbook of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy - Innovations and Applications for Clinical Practice. Springer.

  • Odgers, C. L., Moffitt, T. E., Broadbent, J. M., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Poulton, R., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2008). Female and male antisocial trajectories: From childhood origins to adult outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 673–716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000333

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ozbek, A., Gencer, O., & Mustan, A. T. (2019). Which parents dropout from an evidence-based parenting programme (Triple-P) at CAMHS? Comparison of programme-completing and dropout parents. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24(1), 144–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104518792294

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive Family Process. Castalia.

  • Perra, O., Paine, A. L., & Hay, D. F. (2021). Continuity and change in anger and aggressiveness from infancy to childhood: The protective effects of positive parenting. Development and Psychopathology, 33(3), 937–956. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420000243

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reyno, S. M., & McGrath, P. J. (2006). Predictors of parent training efficacy for child externalizing behavior problems—a meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(1), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01544.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivenbark, J. G., Odgers, C. L., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Hogan, S., Houts, R. M., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2018). The high societal costs of childhood conduct problems: Evidence from administrative records up to age 38 in a longitudinal birth cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59, 703–710. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12850

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, M. R. (2012). Development, evaluation, and multinational dissemination of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, M., Kirby, J., Tellegen, C., & Day, J. (2014). The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a multi-level system of parenting support. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 337–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.04.003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenwald, S. K., & Hoagwood, K. (2001). Effectiveness, transportability, and dissemination of interventions: What matters when? Psychiatric Services (washington, D. C.), 52(9), 1190–1197. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.52.9.1190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, D. S., Galán, C. A., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Dishion, T. J., Elam, K. K., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2019). Trajectories and predictors of children’s early-starting conduct problems: Child, family, genetic, and intervention effects. Development and Psychopathology, 31(5), 1911–1921. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000828

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Steele, H., & Steele, M. (Eds.). (2018). Handbook of attachment-based interventions. Guilford Press.

  • Tarabulsy, G. M., St-Laurent, D., Cyr, C., Pascuzzo, K., Moss, E., Bernier, A., & Dubois-Comtois, K. (2008). Attachment-based intervention for maltreating families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78(3), 322–332. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014070

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, R., Abell, B., Webb, H. J., Avdagic, E., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2017). Parent-child interaction therapy: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 140(3), e20170352. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-0352

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2006). The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy to reorganize attachment in the young offspring of mothers with major depressive disorder: A randomized preventive trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 1006. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.1006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Seguin, J. R., Zoccolillo, M., Zelazo, P. D., Boivin, M., Perusse, D., & Japel, C. (2004). Physical aggression during early childhood: Trajectories and predictors. Pediatrics, 114(1), e43-50. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.114.1.e43

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Zeijl, J., Mesman, J., IJzendoorn Van, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Juffer, F., Stolk, M. N., Koot, H. M., & Alink, L. R. A. (2006). Attachment-based intervention for enhancing sensitive discipline in mothers of 1- to 3-year-old children at risk for externalizing behavior problems: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 994–1005. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.994

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, M. A., Theule, J., & Cheung, K. (2016). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy for child disruptive behaviour disorders: A meta-analysis. Child & Youth Care Forum, 45, 675–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-016-9350-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C. (1988). Preventing conduct problems in Head Start children: Strengthening parenting competencies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(5), 715–730. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.66.5.715

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., & Hammond, M. (1997). Treating children with early-onset conduct problems: A comparison of child and parent training interventions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65(1), 93–109. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.65.1.93

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wertz, J., Agnew-Blais, J., Caspi, A., Danese, A., Fisher, H. L., Goldman-Mellor, S., Moffitt, T. E., & Arseneault, L. (2018). From childhood conduct problems to poor functioning at age 18 years: examining explanations in a longitudinal cohort study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 57(1), 54–60. e54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.09.437.

Download references

Funding

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

    Jane Kohlhoff & Sara Cibralic

  2. P.O. Box 241, Villawood, NSW, Australia

    Jane Kohlhoff

Authors
  1. Jane Kohlhoff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sara Cibralic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Both authors were both equally involved in the conception, design, conduct and write-up of the study.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jane Kohlhoff.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

Jane Kohlhoff declares that she was the first author on one of the papers included in the review (Kohlhoff et al., 2021), and a co-developer of the PCIT-T intervention (Girard et al., 2018), which this paper reported on. Sara Cibralic reports no conflicts of interest.

Ethics approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kohlhoff, J., Cibralic, S. The Impact of Attachment-Based Parenting Interventions on Externalizing Behaviors in Toddlers and Preschoolers: A Systematic Narrative Review. Child Youth Care Forum 51, 1005–1029 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09667-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09667-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation