Abstract
Women are socialized to endorse femininity scripts mandating that they prioritize others’ needs and engage in self-silencing behaviors. Further, Black women may also endorse the strong Black woman (SBW) ideal, by which they are expected to selflessly meet the needs of their family and community and, as such, may embrace self-silencing in their interpersonal relationships. In a sample of 597 Black undergraduate and graduate college women, we tested whether: (1) self-silencing and SBW ideal endorsement would be independently, inversely associated with three dimensions of sexual assertiveness–communication assertiveness, refusal assertiveness, and pleasure-focused assertiveness; and (2) the association between self-silencing and sexual assertiveness would be stronger among Black women who endorse the SBW ideal. Correlational and regression analyses revealed that self-silencing was negatively linked to all dimensions of sexual assertiveness; SBW ideal endorsement was associated with lower levels of communication and pleasure-focused assertiveness. As expected, SBW ideal endorsement moderated the association between Black women’s engagement in self-silencing and two dimensions of sexual assertiveness. Self-silencing was associated with less communication and pleasure-focused assertiveness regardless of their level of SBW endorsement. Findings highlight the complexities of Black women’s desire to fulfill expectations to be strong, assertive, and/or compliant and silent. Interventions to promote Black women’s sexual health should address sexual assertiveness and feminine silencing norms.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrams, J. A., Hill, A., & Maxwell, M. (2019). Underneath the mask of the strong Black woman schema: Disentangling influences of strength and self-silencing on depressive symptoms among U.S. Black women. Sex Roles, 80(9), 517–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0956-y
Abrams, J. A., Maxwell, M., Pope, M., & Belgrave, F. Z. (2014). Carrying the world with the grace of a lady and the grit of a warrior: Deepening our understanding of the “strong Black woman” schema. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(4), 503–518. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684314541418
Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., & Reno, R. R. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Sage.
Anyiwo, N., Ward, L. M., Day Fletcher, K., & Rowley, S. (2018). Black adolescents’ television usage and endorsement of mainstream gender roles and the strong Black woman schema. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(4), 371–397. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798418771818
Avery, L. R., Stanton, A. G., Ward, L. M., Cole, E. R., Trinh, S. L., & Jerald, M. C. (2021). “Pretty hurts”: Acceptance of hegemonic feminine beauty ideals and reduced sexual well-being among Black women. Body Image, 38, 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.04.004
Bay-Cheng, L. Y. (2019). Agency is everywhere, but agency is not enough: A conceptual analysis of young women’s sexual agency. Journal of Sex Research, 56(4–5), 462–474. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1578330
Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. (2007). “You have to show strength”: An exploration of gender, race, and depression. Gender and Society, 21(1), 28–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206294108
Benson, M. L., Fox, G. L., DeMaris, A., & Van Wyk, J. (2003). Neighborhood disadvantage, individual economic distress and violence against women in intimate relationships. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19(3), 207–235. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024930208331
Brassard, A., Dupuy, E., Bergeron, S., & Shaver, P. R. (2015). Attachment insecurities and women’s sexual function and satisfaction: The mediating roles of sexual self-esteem, sexual anxiety, and sexual assertiveness. Journal of Sex Research, 52(1), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.838744
Brown, D., Blackmon, S., & Shiflett, A. (2018). Safer sexual practices among African American women: Intersectional socialization and sexual assertiveness. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 20(6), 673–689. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2017.1370132
Carcedo, R. J., Fernández-Rouco, N., Fernández-Fuertes, A. A., & Martínez-Álvarez, J. L. (2020). Association between sexual satisfaction and depression and anxiety in adolescents and young adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 841–858. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030841
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Sexually transmitted disease surveillance 2018. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc.79370.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.
Curtin, N., Ward, L. M., Merriwether, A., & Caruthers, A. (2011). Femininity ideology and sexual health in young women: A focus on sexual knowledge, embodiment, and agency. Journal of Sexual Health, 23(1), 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2010.524694
Daniluk, J. C. (1993). The meaning and experience of female sexuality: A phenomenological analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17(1), 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1993.tb00676.x
Darden, M. C., Ehman, A. C., Lair, E. C., & Gross, A. M. (2019). Sexual compliance: Examining the relationships among sexual want, sexual consent, and sexual assertiveness. Sexuality & Culture, 23(1), 220–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-018-9551-1
Dawson, J. F. (2014). Moderation in management research: What, why, when and how. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9308-7
Day, K. M. (2010). The role of sexual socialization in the development of healthy sexuality in African American girls and young women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Eaton, A. A., & Matamala, A. (2014). The relationship between heteronormative beliefs and verbal sexual coercion in college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(7), 1443–1457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0284-4
Embretson, S. E., & Reise, S. (2000). Item response theory for psychologists. Erlbaum.
Fahs, B., & McClelland, S. I. (2016). When sex and power collide: An argument for critical sexuality studies. Journal of Sex Research, 53(4–5), 392–416. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1152454
Fletcher, K. D., Ward, L. M., Thomas, K., Foust, M., Levin, D., & Trinh, S. (2015). Will it help? Identifying socialization discourses that promote sexual risk and sexual health among African American youth. Journal of Sex Research, 52(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.853724
Greene, K., & Faulkner, S. L. (2005). Gender, belief in the sexual double standard, and sexual talk in heterosexual dating relationships. Sex Roles, 53(3–4), 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-5682-6
Harper, M. S., Dickson, J. W., & Welsh, D. P. (2006). Self-silencing and rejection sensitivity in adolescent romantic relationships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(3), 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9048-3
Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling. https://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf.
Holland, K. J. (2020). Correlates of college women’s intentions to use formal campus supports for sexual assault. Psychology of Violence, 10, 245–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000240
Hurlbert, D. F. (1991). The role of assertiveness in female sexuality: A comparative study between sexually assertive and nonassertive women. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 17(3), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926239108404342
Impett, E. A., Schooler, D., & Tolman, D. L. (2006). To be seen and not heard: Femininity ideology and adolescent girls’ sexual health. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35(2), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-005-9016-0
Jack, D. C. (1991). Silencing the self: Women and depression. Harvard University Press.
Jack, D. C., & Dill, D. (1992). The Silencing the Self Scale: Schemas of intimacy associated with depression in women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16(1), 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1992.tb00242.x
Jerald, M. C., Cole, E. R., Ward, L. M., & Avery, L. R. (2017). Controlling images: How awareness of group stereotypes affects Black women’s well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(5), 487–499. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000233
Jones, M. K., Harris, K. J., & Reynolds, A. A. (2021). In their own words: The meaning of the strong Black woman schema among Black U.S. college women. Sex Roles, 84(1), 347–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01170-w
Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316446002000116
Kelley, E. L., Orchowski, L. M., & Gidycz, C. A. (2016). Sexual victimization among college women: Role of sexual assertiveness and resistance variables. Psychology of Violence, 6(2), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039407
Kiefer, A. K., & Sanchez, D. T. (2007). Scripting sexual passivity: A gender role perspective. Personal Relationships, 14(2), 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2007.00154.x
Leath, S., Jones, M., Jerald, M. C., & Perkins, T. R. (2021). An investigation of Jezebel stereotype awareness, gendered racial identity and sexual beliefs and behaviours among Black adult women. Culture, Health & Sexuality. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2020.1863471
Lentz, A. M., & Zaikman, Y. (2021). The Big “O”: Sociocultural influences on orgasm frequency and sexual satisfaction in women. Sexuality & Culture, 25, 1096–1123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-020-09811-8
Livingston, J. A., Testa, M., & VanZile-Tamsen, C. (2007). The reciprocal relationship between sexual victimization and sexual assertiveness. Violence Against Women, 13(3), 298–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206297339
Loshek, E., & Terrell, H. K. (2015). The development of the Sexual Assertiveness Questionnaire (SAQ): A comprehensive measure of sexual assertiveness for women. Journal of Sex Research, 52(9), 1017–1027. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.944970
Mahalik, J. R., Morray, E. B., Coonerty-Femiano, A., Ludlow, L. H., Slattery, S. M., & Smiler, A. (2005). Development of the Conformity to Feminine Norms Inventory. Sex Roles, 52(7–8), 417–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3709-7
Martin, P. P., Wout, D., Nguyen, H. X., Sellers, R. M., & Gonzalez, R. (2010). Investigating the psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity in two samples: The development of the MIBI-S. Unpublished manuscript.
Morokoff, P. J., Quina, K., Harlow, L. L., Whitmire, L., Grimley, D. M., Gibson, P. R., & Burkholder, G. J. (1997). Sexual Assertiveness Scale (SAS) for women: Development and validation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 790–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.790
Quina, K., Harlow, L. L., Morokoff, P. J., Burkholder, G., & Dieter, P. J. (2000). Sexual communication in relationships: When words speak louder than actions. Sex Roles, 42(7), 523–549. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007043205155
Rouse-Arnett, M., Dilworth, J., & Stephens, D. (2006). The influence of social institutions on African American women’s sexual values and attitudes. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 17(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1300/J086v17n02_01
Russo, N. F., Denious, J. E., Keita, G. P., & Koss, M. P. (1997). Intimate violence and black women’s health. Womens Health, 3(3–4), 315–348.
Sanchez, D. T., Phelan, J. E., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Good, J. J. (2012). The gender role motivation model of women’s sexually submissive behavior and satisfaction in heterosexual couples. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(4), 528–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211430088
Santos-Iglesias, P., Sierra, J. C., & Vallejo-Medina, P. (2013). Predictors of sexual assertiveness: The role of sexual desire, arousal, attitudes, and partner abuse. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(6), 1043–1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9998-3
Sionéan, C., DiClemente, R. J., Wingood, G. M., Crosby, R., Cobb, B. K., Harrington, K., Davies, S. L., Hook, E. W., III., & Oh, M. K. (2002). Psychosocial and behavioral correlates of refusing unwanted sex among African-American adolescent females. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30(1), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00318-4
Smith, L., Yang, L., Veronese, N., Soysal, P., Stubbs, B., & Jackson, S. E. (2019). Sexual activity is associated with greater enjoyment of life in older adults. Sexual Medicine, 7(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esxm.2018.11.001
Smith, S. G., Zhang, X., Basile, K. C., Merrick, M. T., Wang, J., Kresnow, M., Chen, J. (2018). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2015 data brief—updated release. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/2015data-brief508.pdf.
Stanton, A. G., Jerald, M. C., Ward, L. M., & Avery, L. R. (2017). Social media contributions to strong Black woman ideal endorsement and Black women’s mental health. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 41(4), 465–478. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684317732330
Stokes, L. R., & Brody, L. R. (2019). Self-silencing, but not sexual relationship power associated with condom use for Black college-aged women. Behavioral Sciences, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9020013
Thomas, K. (2006). Gender role development in African Americans: The impact of “strong Black woman” stereotype. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Ward, L. M., Jerald, M., Avery, L., & Cole, E. R. (2019). Following their lead? Connecting mainstream media use to Black women’s gender beliefs and sexual agency. Journal of Sex Research, 57(2), 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2018.1554741
Watkins, M. W. (2018). Exploratory factor analysis: A guide to best practice. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(3), 219–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798418771807
Watson, L. B., & Grotewiel, M. (2016). The protective role of commitment to social change in the relationship between women’s sexist experiences and self-silencing. Sex Roles, 75(3), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0594-1
Watson, N., & Hunter, C. (2016). “I had to be strong”: Tensions in the strong Black woman schema. Journal of Black Psychology, 42(5), 424–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798415597093
Widman, L., Welsh, D. P., McNulty, J. K., & Little, K. C. (2006). Sexual communication and contraceptive use in adolescent dating couples. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(6), 893–899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.06.003
Woods-Giscombé, C. (2010). Superwoman schema: African American women’s views on stress, strength, and health. Qualitative Health Research, 20(5), 668–683. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732310361892
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & French, J. (2016). Associations of sexual subjectivity with global and sexual well-being: A new measure for young males and comparison to females. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(2), 315–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0387-y
Funding
This study was funded by the University of Michigan Office of Research (UMOR) and PI discretionary funds. This research was also supported by a Ford Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship to Lanice R. Avery.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by LRA, AGS, LMW, ERC, and MCJ. The first draft of the manuscript was written by LRA, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to Publish
The authors affirm that participants provided informed consent for publication of the overall results of the study.
Ethical Approval
The questionnaire and methodology for this study was approved by the Health Sciences and Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board of the University of Michigan (IRB Study ID: HUM00068279).
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Avery, L.R., Stanton, A.G., Ward, L.M. et al. The Strong, Silent (Gender) Type: The Strong Black Woman Ideal, Self-Silencing, and Sexual Assertiveness in Black College Women. Arch Sex Behav 51, 1509–1520 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02179-2
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02179-2