Abstract
As the global demand for seafood surges, the expanding aquaculture industry faces a pressing need for viable aquafeed ingredients. The raw material for fish oil is limited and expensive due to unpredictable fishery resources in the fishing zones and the overexploitation of wild fisheries, underscoring the urgency of finding alternatives. This review explores diverse plant oil sources, including soybean, rapeseed, linseed, and algal oils, emphasizing their crucial role in nutritionally balanced aquafeeds. These oils support aquatic animals’ growth, health, and development, influencing membrane structure, energy storage, and hormone production. Genetically modified oilseeds (GM), such as camelina and canola, offer a controlled nutrient content, enabling customized nutrient profiles. This comprehensive review provides an overview of different plant oil sources, elucidates their nutrient profiles, and assesses their potential applications in aquaculture. The discussion encompasses their impact on growth, feed efficiency, lipid profile, health, immunological status, disease resistance, and overall performance of both freshwater and marine fish. Furthermore, the review compiles relevant data on the current status of genetically modified plant oils and explores their potential integration into aquaculture practices. In summary, substituting plant oils for fish oil in aquafeed presents a promising solution to aquaculture industry challenges to meet nutritional requirements for fish.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Not applicable.
References
Ackman RG (1990) Canola fatty acids—an ideal mixture for health, nutrition, and food use. In: Shahidi F (ed) Canola and Rapeseed: Production, Chemistry, Nutrition and Processing Technology. Springer US, Boston, pp 81–98
Apraku A, Liu L, Leng X et al (2017) Evaluation of blended virgin coconut oil and fish oil on growth performance and resistance to Streptococcus iniae challenge of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Egypt J Basic Appl Sci 4:175–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejbas.2017.06.002
Arts MT, Ackman RG, Holub BJ (2001) “Essential fatty acids” in aquatic ecosystems: a crucial link between diet and human health and evolution. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 58:122–137. https://doi.org/10.1139/f00-224
Asdari R, Aliyu-Paiko M, Hashim R, Ramachandran S (2011) Effects of different dietary lipid sources in the diet for Pangasius hypophthalmus (Sauvage, 1878) juvenile on growth performance, nutrient utilization, body indices and muscle and liver fatty acid composition. Aquac Nutr 17:44–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2009.00705.x
Ayisi CL, Zhao J, Yame C et al (2019) Effects of replacing fish oil with palm oil in diets of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) on muscle biochemical composition, enzyme activities, and mRNA expression of growth-related genes. Fish Aquatic Sci 22:25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41240-019-0139-y
Ayisi CL, Zhao JL (2017) Fatty acid composition, lipogenic enzyme activities and mRNA expression of genes involved in the lipid metabolism of Nile tilapia fed with palm oil. Turk J Fish Aquat Sci 17:405–415
Bell JG, Henderson RJ, Tocher DR et al (2002) Substituting fish oil with crude palm oil in the diet of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) affects muscle fatty acid composition and hepatic fatty acid metabolism. J Nutr 132:222–230
Bell JG, McEvoy J, Tocher DR et al (2001) Replacement of fish oil with rapeseed oil in diets of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) affects tissue lipid compositions and hepatocyte fatty acid metabolism. J Nutr 131:1535–1543. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/131.5.1535
Bell JG, McVicar AH, Park MT, Sargent JR (1991) High dietary linoleic acid affects the fatty acid compositions of individual phospholipids from tissues of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): association with stress susceptibility and cardiac lesion. J Nutr 121:1163–1172. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/121.8.1163
Benedito-Palos L, Navarro JC, Bermejo-Nogales A et al (2009) The time course of fish oil wash-out follows a simple dilution model in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) fed graded levels of vegetable oils. Aquaculture 288:98–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.11.010
Berge GM, Bou M, Krasnov A et al (2019) n-3 Canola oil effectively replaces fish oil as a new safe dietary source of DHA in feed for juvenile Atlantic salmon. Br J Nut 122:1329–1345. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114519002356
Betancor MB, Sprague M, Sayanova O et al (2015) Evaluation of a high-EPA oil from transgenic Camelina sativa in feeds for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): Effects on tissue fatty acid composition, histology and gene expression. Aquaculture 444:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.03.020
Betancor MB, Sprague M, Sayanova O et al (2016) Nutritional evaluation of an EPA-DHA oil from transgenic Camelina sativa in feeds for post-smolt Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). PLoS One 11:e0159934. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159934
Blanchard JL, Watson RA, Fulton EA et al (2017) Linked sustainability challenges and trade-offs among fisheries, aquaculture and agriculture. Nat Ecol Evol 1:1240–1249. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0258-8
Borowitzka MA (1997) Microalgae for aquaculture: opportunities and constraints. J Appl Phycol 9:393–401
Bou M, Berge GM, Baeverfjord G et al (2017) Low levels of very-long-chain n-3 PUFA in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) diet reduce fish robustness under challenging conditions in sea cages. J Nutr Sci 6:e32. https://doi.org/10.1017/jns.2017.28
Boyd CE, D’Abramo LR, Glencross BD et al (2020) Achieving sustainable aquaculture: historical and current perspectives and future needs and challenges. J World Aquac Soc 51:578–633. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12714
Bransden MP, Carter CG, Nichols PD (2003) Replacement of fish oil with sunflower oil in feeds for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): effect on growth performance, tissue fatty acid composition and disease resistance. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 135:611–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1096-4959(03)00143-x
Brown MR, Jeffrey SW, Volkman JK, Dunstan GA (1997) Nutritional properties of microalgae for mariculture. Aquaculture 151:315–331
Bureau DP, Gibson J, El-Mowafi A (2002) Review: use of animal fats in aquaculture feeds. In: Cruz-Suárez LE, Ricque-Marie D, Tapia-Salazar M, Gaxiola-Cortés MG, Simoes N (eds) Advances en Nutrición Acuícola VI. Memorias del VI Simposium
Burel C, Kaushik SJ (2008) Use of rapeseed/canola in diets of aquaculture species. In: Lim CE, Webster CD, Lee C-S (eds) Alternative protein sources in aquaculture diets. Haworth, New York, p 343
Calder PC (2009) Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: new twists in an old tale. Biochimie 91:791–795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2009.01.008
Cardoso da Rocha SD (2012) Replacing fish oil by vegetable oil in a low fish protein diet: effects on visceral adipose tissue and inflammation in Atlantic salmon (Master's thesis, The University of Bergen)
Cashion T, Le Manach F, Zeller D, Pauly D (2017) Most fish destined for fishmeal production are food-grade fish. Fish Fish 18:837–844. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12209
Castro LFC, Tocher DR, Monroig O (2016) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in chordates: insights into the evolution of Fads and Elovl gene repertoire. Prog Lipid Res 62:25–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2016.01.001
Colombo SM, Roy K, Mraz J et al (2023) Towards achieving circularity and sustainability in feeds for farmed blue foods. Rev Aquac 15:1115–1141. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12766
Colombo SM, Parrish CC, Wijekoon MPA (2018) Optimizing long chain-polyunsaturated fatty acid synthesis in salmonids by balancing dietary inputs. PLoS ONE 13:e0205347. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205347
Cook HW, McMaster CR (2002) Chapter 7 Fatty acid desaturation and chain elongation in eukaryotes. New Comprehensive Biochemistry, vol 36. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 181–204
Copeman LA, Parrish CC, Brown JA, Harel M (2002) Effects of docosahexaenoic, eicosapentaenoic, and arachidonic acids on the early growth, survival, lipid composition and pigmentation of yellowtail flounder (Limanda ferruginea): a live food enrichment experiment. Aquaculture 210:285–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(01)00849-3
Czumaj A, Śledziński T (2020) Biological role of unsaturated fatty acid desaturases in health and disease. Nutrients 12:356. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020356
Demir O, Türker A, Acar Ü, Kesbiç OS (2014) Effects of dietary fish oil replacement by unrefined peanut oil on the growth, serum biochemical and hematological parameters of Mozambique tilapia juveniles (Oreochromis mossambicus). Turk J Fish Aquat Sci 14:887–892. https://doi.org/10.4194/1303-2712-v14_4_06
Dossou S, Dawood MA, Zaineldin AI et al (2021) Dynamical hybrid system for optimizing and controlling efficacy of plant-based protein in aquafeeds. Complexity 2021:9957723. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9957723
Du J, Xu H, Li S et al (2017) Effects of dietary chenodeoxycholic acid on growth performance, body composition and related gene expression in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) fed diets with high replacement of fish oil with soybean oil. Aquaculture 479:584–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.06.023
Du ZY, Clouet P, Huang Im et al (2008) Utilization of different dietary lipid sources at high level in herbivorous grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella): mechanism related to hepatic fatty acid oxidation. Aquac Nutr 14:77–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2007.00507.x
Dupont-Cyr BA, Le François NR, Christen F, D, et al (2022) Linseed oil as a substitute for fish oil in the diet of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus), brook charr (S. fontinalis) and their reciprocal hybrids. Aquaculture Reports 22:100949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2021.100949
Edem DO (2002) Palm oil: biochemical, physiological, nutritional, hematological, and toxicological aspects: a review. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 57:319–341. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021828132707
El-Kasheif M, Saad A, Ibrahim S (2011) Effects of varying levels of fish oil on growth performance, body composition and haematological characteristics of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L). Egypt J Aquat Biol Fish 15:125–141. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejabf.2011.2082
Enami H (2011) A review of using canola/rapeseed meal in aquaculture feeding. J Fish Aquat Sci 6:22–36. https://doi.org/10.3923/jfas.2011.22.36
Encarnação P (2016) 5 - Functional feed additives in aquaculture feeds. In: Nates SF (ed) Aquafeed Formulation. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 217–237
Erondu ES, Akpoilih BU, John FS (2023) Total replacement of dietary fish oil with vegetable lipid sources influenced growth performance, whole body composition, and protein retention in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fingerlings. J Appl Aquac 35:330–349. https://doi.org/10.1080/10454438.2021.196023
FAO (2018) The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2018 - meeting the sustainable development goals. Rome. License: CC BYNC-SA 3.0 IGO. http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en
FAO (2019) Fisheries and Aquaculture Department. FishStatJ – Software for Fishery and Aquaculture Statistical Time Series. http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/software/
Figueiredo Silva C, Rocha E, Dias J et al (2005) Partial replacement of fish oil by soybean oil on lipid distribution and liver histology in European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juveniles. Aquac Nutr 11:147–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2004.00337.x
Fountoulaki E, Vasilaki A, Hurtado R et al (2009) Fish oil substitution by vegetable oils in commercial diets for gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.); effects on growth performance, flesh quality and fillet fatty acid profile. Aquaculture 289:317–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.01.023
Ganga R, Bell JG, Montero D et al (2005) Effect of dietary lipids on plasma fatty acid profiles and prostaglandin and leptin production in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 142:410–418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2005.09.010
Gasco, L. et al. (2018) Sustainable alternatives for dietary fish oil in aquafeeds: actual situation and future perspectives. In: Feeds for the Aquaculture Sector. SpringerBriefs in Molecular Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77941-6_3
Geay F, Wenon D, Mellery J et al (2015) Dietary linseed oil reduces growth while differentially impacting LC-PUFA synthesis and accretion into tissues in Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis). Lipids 50:1219–1232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-015-4079-8
Gee PT (2007) Analytical characteristics of crude and refined palm oil and fractions. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 109:373–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200600264
Ghosi Mobaraki MR, Abedian Kenari A, Bahrami Gorji S, Esmaeili N (2020) Effect of dietary fish and vegetable oil on the growth performance, body composition, fatty acids profile, reproductive performance and larval resistance in pearl gourami (Trichogaster leeri). Aquac Nutr 26:894–907. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.13048
Glencross BD, Carr I, Santigosa E (2023) Distribution, deposition, and modelling of lipid and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in Atlantic salmon fillets. Rev Fish Sci Aquac 31:119–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2022.2090831
Glencross BD (2020) A feed is still only as good as its ingredients: an update on the nutritional research strategies for the optimal evaluation of ingredients for aquaculture feeds. Aquacult Nutr 26:1871–1883. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.13138
Glencross BD (2009) Exploring the nutritional demand for essential fatty acids by aquaculture species. Rev Aquac 1:71–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-5131.2009.01006.x
Glencross BD, Curnow J, Hawkins W et al (2003) Evaluation of the feed value of a transgenic strain of the narrow-leaf lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) in the diet of the marine fish, Pagrus auratus. Aquac Nutr 9:197–206. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2095.2003.00247.x
Glencross BD, Smith DM, Thomas MR, Williams KC (2002) The effect of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acid balance on the growth of the prawn Penaeus monodon. Aquac Nutr 8:43–51. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2095.2002.00188.x
Gonçalves LU, Cortegano CAA, Barone RSC et al (2021) Effects of dietary linolenic acid to linoleic acid ratio on growth performance, proximate composition and fatty acid contents of pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus). Aquac Res 52:6667–6677. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.15536
Gou N, Ji H, Chang Z et al (2020) Effects of dietary essential fatty acid requirements on growth performance, fatty acid composition, biochemical parameters, antioxidant response and lipid related genes expression in juvenile Onychostoma macrolepis. Aquaculture 528:735590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735590
Griffiths MJ, Harrison STL (2009) Lipid productivity as a key characteristic for choosing algal species for biodiesel production. J Appl Phycol 21:493–507. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-008-9392-7
Guillou A, Soucy P, Khalil M, Adambounou L (1995) Effects of dietary vegetable and marine lipid on growth, muscle fatty acid composition and organoleptic quality of flesh of brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis). Aquaculture 136:351–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(95)00053-4
Güler M, Yildiz M (2011) Effects of dietary fish oil replacement by cottonseed oil on growth performance and fatty acid composition of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Turk J Vet Anim Sci 35:157–167
Hamilton HA, Newton R, Auchterlonie NA, Müller DB (2020) Systems approach to quantify the global omega-3 fatty acid cycle. Nat Food 1:59–62. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-019-0006-0
Hamilton ML, Haslam RP, Napier JA, Sayanova O (2014) Metabolic engineering of Phaeodactylum tricornutum for the enhanced accumulation of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Metab Eng 22:3–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymben.2013.12.003
Hamilton ML, Warwick J, Terry A et al (2015) Towards the industrial production of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from a genetically modified diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. PLoS ONE 10:e0144054. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144054
Han L, Silvestre S, Sayanova O et al (2022) Using field evaluation and systematic iteration to rationalize the accumulation of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in transgenic Camelina sativa. Plant Biotechnol J 20:1833–1852. https://doi.org/10.1111/pbi.13867
Harwood JL, Guschina IA (2009) The versatility of algae and their lipid metabolism. Biochimie 91:679–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2008.11.004
Haslam RP, Sayanova O, Kim HJ et al (2016) Synthetic redesign of plant lipid metabolism. Plant J 87:76–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.13172
He J, Liu T, Weng X et al (2022) Effects of different vegetable oil sources on growth performance, body composition and tissue fatty acid composition of spotted knifejaw. Oplegnathus Punctatus Aquac Rep 27:101401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2022.101401
Heinz E (2002) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in transgenic oilseeds: which approach will be successful first? Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 104:1–2. https://doi.org/10.1002/1438-9312(200201)104:1%3c1::AID-EJLT1%3e3.0.CO;2-I
Hemre G-I, Sagstad A, Bakke-Mckellep AM et al (2007) Nutritional, physiological, and histological responses in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. fed diets with genetically modified maize. Aquac Nutr 13:186–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2007.00465.x
Henderson RJ, Tocher DR (1987) The lipid composition and biochemistry of freshwater fish. Prog Lipid Res 26:281–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-7827(87)90002-6
Hixson SM, Parrish CC, Xue X et al (2017) Growth performance, tissue composition, and gene expression responses in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed varying levels of different lipid sources. Aquaculture 467:76–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.04.011
Hua K, Cobcroft JM, Cole A et al (2019) The future of aquatic protein: implications for protein sources in aquaculture diets. One Earth 1:316–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.10.018
Huang SSY, Oo AN, Higgs DA et al (2007) Effect of dietary canola oil level on the growth performance and fatty acid composition of juvenile red sea bream, Pagrus major. Aquaculture 271:420–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.06.004
Huang Y-S, Pereira SL, Leonard AE (2004) Enzymes for transgenic biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Biochimie 86:793–798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2004.09.019
Hundal BK, Lutfi E, Sigholt T et al (2022) A piece of the puzzle-possible mechanisms for why low dietary EPA and DHA cause hepatic lipid accumulation in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Metabolites 12:159. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo12020159
Huyben D, Cronin T, Bartie KL et al (2023) Steroidogenic and innate immune responses in Atlantic salmon are influenced by dietary total lipid, long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and dissolved oxygen. Aquaculture 564:739028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2022.739028
Huyben D, Roehe BK, Bekaert M, et al (2020) Dietary lipid:protein ratio and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids alters the gut microbiome of atlantic salmon under hypoxic and normoxic conditions. Front Microbiol 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.589898
Ishikawa A, Kabeya N, Ikeya K et al (2019) A key metabolic gene for recurrent freshwater colonization and radiation in fishes. Science 364:886–889. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau5656
Izquierdo MS, Fernández-Palacios H, Tacon AGJ (2001) Effect of broodstock nutrition on reproductive performance of fish. Aquaculture 197:25–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(01)00581-6
Izquierdo MS, Montero D, Robaina L et al (2005) Alterations in fillet fatty acid profile and flesh quality in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) fed vegetable oils for a long term period. Recovery of fatty acid profiles by fish oil feeding. Aquaculture 250:431–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2004.12.001
Jakobsson A, Westerberg R, Jacobsson A (2006) Fatty acid elongases in mammals: their regulation and roles in metabolism. Prog Lipid Res 45:237–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2006.01.004
Jardine TD, Galloway AWE, Kainz MJ (2020) Unlocking the power of fatty acids as dietary tracers and metabolic signals in fishes and aquatic invertebrates. Philos Trans R Soc B: Biol Sci 375:20190639. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0639
Kabeya N, Sanz-Jorquera A, Carboni S et al (2017) Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in sea urchins: molecular and functional characterisation of three fatty acyl desaturases from Paracentrotus lividus (Lamark 1816). PLoS ONE 12:e0169374. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169374
Kanazawa TS, Sakamoto M, Awal MAA (1980) Requirements of Tilapia zillii for essential fatty acids. Bull Jpn Soc Sci Fish 46:1353–1356
Kim DK, Kim KD, Seo JY, Lee SM (2012) Effects of dietary lipid source and level on growth performance, blood parameters and flesh quality of sub-adult olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Asian-Australas J Anim Sci 25:869–879. https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.2011.11470
Li FJ, Lin X, Lin SM et al (2016) Effects of dietary fish oil substitution with linseed oil on growth, muscle fatty acid and metabolism of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquac Nutr 22:499–508. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.12270
Lin H, Liu Y, He J et al (2007) Alternative vegetable lipid sources in diets for grouper, Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton): effects on growth, and muscle and liver fatty acid composition. Aquac Res 38:1605–1611. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2007.01811.x
Lin Y-H, Shiau S-Y (2007) Effects of dietary blend of fish oil with corn oil on growth and non-specific immune responses of grouper, Epinephelus malabaricus. Aquac Nutr 13:137–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2007.00458.x
Ling S, Hashim R, Kolkovski S, Chong Shu-Chien A (2006) Effect of varying dietary lipid and protein levels on growth and reproductive performance of female swordtails Xiphophorus helleri (Poeciliidae). Aquac Res 37:1267–1275. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2006.01554.x
Litz MNC, Miller JA, Copeman LA, Hurst TP (2017) Effects of dietary fatty acids on juvenile salmon growth, biochemistry, and aerobic performance: a laboratory rearing experiment. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 494:20–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2017.04.007
Løvmo SD, Whatmore P, Sundh H et al (2021) Effects of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed low- and high HUFA diets on growth and midgut intestinal health. Aquaculture 539:736653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.736653
Malcorps W, Kok B, van‘t Land M, et al. (2019) The sustainability conundrum of fishmeal substitution by plant ingredients in shrimp feeds. Sustainability 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041212
Martínez-Llorens S, Moñino AV, Tomás Vidal A et al (2007) Soybean meal as a protein source in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) diets: effects on growth and nutrient utilization. Aquac Res 38:82–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2006.01637.x
Masiha A, Ebrahimi E, Soofiani NM, Kadivar M (2013) Effect of dietary vegetable oils on the growth performance and fatty acid composition of fingerlings of Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Food Sci Technol 1:21–29. https://doi.org/10.13189/fst.2013.010202
Mateos HT, Lewandowski PA, Su XQ (2012) The effect of replacing dietary fish oil with canola oil on fatty acid composition and expression of desaturase and elongase genes in Jade Tiger hybrid abalone. Food Chem 131:1217–1222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.107
Menoyo D, Lopez-Bote CJ, Diez A et al (2007) Impact of n−3 fatty acid chain length and n−3/n−6 ratio in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) diets. Aquaculture 267:248–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.02.031
Menoyo D, López-Bote CJ, Obach A, Bautista JM (2005) Effect of dietary fish oil substitution with linseed oil on the performance, tissue fatty acid profile, metabolism, and oxidative stability of Atlantic salmon1,2. J Anim Sci 83:2853–2862. https://doi.org/10.2527/2005.83122853x
Miller MR, Nichols PD, Carter CG (2008) n-3 Oil sources for use in aquaculture – alternatives to the unsustainable harvest of wild fish. Nutr Res Rev 21:85–96. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422408102414
Mitra A (2021) Thought of alternate aquafeed: conundrum in aquaculture sustainability? Proc Zool Soc 74:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12595-020-00352-4
Mohammed RA, Abdel-Aziz MFA, Abou-Zied RM, Allam SM (2017) Effect of feeding rate and diet oil source on growth performance and feed utilization of rabbitfish (Siganus rivulatus) Fry. J Fish Aqua Dev: JFAD-123. https://doi.org/10.29011/JFAD-123/100023
Monge-Ortiz R, Tomás-Vidal A, Rodriguez-Barreto D et al (2018) Replacement of fish oil with vegetable oil blends in feeds for greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili) juveniles: effect on growth performance, feed efficiency, tissue fatty acid composition and flesh nutritional value. Aquac Nutr 24:605–615. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.12595
Monroig Ó, Kabeya N (2018) Desaturases and elongases involved in polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in aquatic invertebrates: a comprehensive review. Fish Sci 84:911–928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12562-018-1254-x
Montero D, Grasso V, Izquierdo MS et al (2008) Total substitution of fish oil by vegetable oils in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) diets: effects on hepatic Mx expression and some immune parameters. Fish Shellfish Immunol 24:147–155
Montero D, Kalinowski T, Obach A et al (2003) Vegetable lipid sources for gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata): effects on fish health. Aquaculture 225:353–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00301-6
Mourente G, Bell JG (2006) Partial replacement of dietary fish oil with blends of vegetable oils (rapeseed, linseed and palm oils) in diets for European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) over a long term growth study: effects on muscle and liver fatty acid composition and effectiveness of a fish oil finishing diet. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 145:389–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2006.08.012
Mourente G, Good JE, Bell JGB (2005) Partial substitution of fish oil with rapeseed, linseed and olive oils in diets for European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.): effects on flesh fatty acid composition, plasma prostaglandins E2 and F2??, immune function and effectiveness of a fish oil finishing diet. Aquac Nutr 11:25–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2004.00320.x
Mu H, Shen H, Liu J et al (2018) High level of dietary soybean oil depresses the growth and anti-oxidative capacity and induces inflammatory response in large yellow croaker Larimichthys crocea. Fish Shellfish Immunol 77:465–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2018.04.017
Napier JA, Usher S, Haslam RP et al (2015) Transgenic plants as a sustainable, terrestrial source of fish oils. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 117:1317–1324. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201400452
Nasopoulou C, Zabetakis I (2012) Benefits of fish oil replacement by plant originated oils in compounded fish feeds. A Review LWT 47:217–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2012.01.018
Naylor RL, Hardy RW, Buschmann AH et al (2021) A 20-year retrospective review of global aquaculture. Nature 591:551–563. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03308-6
Newton RW, Maiolo S, Malcorps W, Little DC (2023) Life cycle inventories of marine ingredients. Aquaculture 565:739096. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AQUACULTURE.2022.739096
Ochang SN (2011) Effect of replacing cod liver oil with soybean oil as dietary lipid on carcass composition, haematology and sensory properties of the Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Int Aquat Res 3:71–77
Ohlrogge JB, Browse J, Somerville CR (1991) The genetics of plant lipids. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA) - Lipids Lipid Metab 1082:1–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-2760(91)90294-R
Parrish CC (2013) Lipids in Marine Ecosystems. Zhou, J L 2013:604045. https://doi.org/10.5402/2013/604045
Patnaik S, Samocha TM, Davis DA et al (2006) The use of HUFA-rich algal meals in diets for Litopenaeus vannamei. Aquac Nutr 12:395–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2006.00440.x
Patterson E, Wall R, Fitzgerald GF et al (2012) Health implications of high dietary omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Nutr Metab 2012:539426. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/539426
Peng S, Chen L, Qin JG et al (2008) Effects of replacement of dietary fish oil by soybean oil on growth performance and liver biochemical composition in juvenile black seabream, Acanthopagrus schlegeli. Aquaculture 276:154–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.01.035
Peng X, Li F, Lin S, Chen Y (2016) Effects of total replacement of fish oil on growth performance, lipid metabolism and antioxidant capacity in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquac Int 24:145–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-015-9914-7
Petrie JR, Shrestha P, Belide S et al (2012) Transgenic production of arachidonic acid in oilseeds. Transgenic Res 21:139–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11248-011-9517-7
Petrie JR, Shrestha P, Belide S et al (2014) Metabolic engineering Camelina sativa with fish oil-like levels of DHA. PLoS ONE 9:e85061. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085061
Petrie JR, Zhou X-R, Leonforte A, et al (2020) Development of a Brassica napus (Canola) crop containing fish oil-like levels of DHA in the seed oil. Front Plant Sci 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00727
Pickova J, Mørkøre T (2007) Alternate oils in fish feeds. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 109:256–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.200600222
Piedecausa MA, Mazón MJ, García García B, Hernández MD (2007) Effects of total replacement of fish oil by vegetable oils in the diets of sharpsnout seabream (Diplodus puntazzo). Aquaculture 263:211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.09.039
Przybylski R, Mag T, Eskin NAM, McDonald BE (2005). Canola oil. In Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, F. Shahidi (Ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/047167849X.bio004
Qiu H, Jin M, Li Y et al (2017) Dietary lipid sources influence fatty acid composition in tissue of large yellow croaker (Larmichthys crocea) by regulating triacylglycerol synthesis and catabolism at the transcriptional level. PLoS ONE 12:e0169985. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169985
Ratledge C (2010) 1 - single cell oils for the 21st century. In: Cohen Z, Ratledge C (eds) Single cell oils (second edition). AOCS Press, Champaign, pp 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-893997-73-8.50005-0
Regost C, Arzel J, Cardinal M et al (2003) Total replacement of fish oil by soybean or linseed oil with a return to fish oil in Turbot (Psetta maxima): 2. Flesh Qual Properties Aquacult 220:737–747. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00655-5
Reijnders L, Huijbregts MAJ (2008) Biogenic greenhouse gas emissions linked to the life cycles of biodiesel derived from European rapeseed and Brazilian soybeans. J Clean Prod 16:1943–1948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.01.012
Reis B, Cabral EM, Fernandes TJR et al (2014) Long-term feeding of vegetable oils to Senegalese sole until market size: effects on growth and flesh quality. Recovery of fatty acid profiles by a fish oil finishing diet. Aquaculture 434:425–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.09.002
Richard N, Mourente G, Kaushik S, Corraze G (2006) Replacement of a large portion of fish oil by vegetable oils does not affect lipogenesis, lipid transport and tissue lipid uptake in European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.). Aquaculture 261:1077–1087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.07.021
Riche M, Barrows FT, Nilles Z, et al. (2023) Replacement of fish oil with a high-DHA algal oil in a fishmeal-free diet fed to Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus). Front Aquacult 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/faquc.2023.1163542
Rinchard J, Czesny S, Dabrowski K (2007) Influence of lipid class and fatty acid deficiency on survival, growth, and fatty acid composition in rainbow trout juveniles. Aquaculture 264:363–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2006.11.024
Rørå AMB, Regost C, Lampe J (2003) Liquid holding capacity, texture and fatty acid profile of smoked fillets of Atlantic salmon fed diets containing fish oil or soybean oil. Food Res Int 36:231–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0963-9969(02)00141-2
Ruiz-Lopez N, Haslam RP, Napier JA, Sayanova O (2014) Successful high-level accumulation of fish oil omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in a transgenic oilseed crop. Plant J 77:198–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.12378
Ruyter B, Røsjø C, Måsøval K et al (2000) Influence of dietary n-3 fatty acids on the desaturation and elongation of [1-14C] 18:2 n-6 and [1-14C] 18:3 n-3 in Atlantic salmon hepatocytes. Fish Physiol Biochem 23:151–158. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007893317923
Sáez-Royuela M, García T, Carral JM, Celada JD (2022) Fish oil replacement by a blend of vegetable oils in diets for juvenile tench (Tinca tinca Linnaeus, 1758): effects on growth performance and whole body composition. Animals 12:1113. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12091113
Sagne M, Loum A, Fall J et al (2013) Effects of different types of oils on growth performance, survival and carcass composition of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). J Biol Life Sci 4:1–12. https://doi.org/10.5296/jbls.v4i2.3041
Sambanthamurthi R, Sundram K, Tan Y-A (2000) Chemistry and biochemistry of palm oil. Prog Lipid Res 39:507–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-7827(00)00015-1
Santigosa E, Brambilla F, Milanese L (2021) Microalgae oil as an effective alternative source of EPA and DHA for Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata) aquaculture. Animals 11:971. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11040971
Santigosa E, Constant D, Prudence D et al (2020) A novel marine algal oil containing both EPA and DHA is an effective source of omega-3 fatty acids for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J World Aquac Soc J World Aquacult Soc 51:649–665. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12699
Sargent JR, Henderson RJ (1995) Marine (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids. In: Hamilton RJ (ed) Developments in Oils and Fats. Springer US, Boston, pp 32–65
Sargent JR, Tocher DR, Bell JG (2003) 4 - The Lipids. In: Halver JE, Hardy RW (eds) Fish nutrition, 3rd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 181–257
Scarth R, Tang J (2006) Modification of Brassica oil using conventional and transgenic approaches. Crop Sci 46:1225–1236. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2005.08-0245
Simopoulos AP (1999) Evolutionary aspects of omega-3 fatty acids in the food supply. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 60:421–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0952-3278(99)80023-4
Sinclair AJ, Attar-Bashi NM, Li D (2002) What is the role of α-linolenic acid for mammals? Lipids 37:1113–1123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-002-1008-x
Singh SK, Rather MA, Mandal SC, et al (2012) Effects of dietary fish oil substitution with palm oil on growth, survival, and muscle proximate composition of Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton, 1822). Isr j aquac-Bamidgeh 809. doi https://doi.org/10.46989/001c.20607
Sprecher H (2000) Metabolism of highly unsaturated n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA) - Molec Cell Biol Lipids 1486:219–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-1981(00)00077-9
Sprague M, Dick JR, Tocher DR (2016) Impact of sustainable feeds on omega-3 long-chain fatty acid levels in farmed Atlantic salmon, 2006–2015. Sci Rep 6:21892. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep21892
Stark KD (2008) The percentage of n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids in total HUFA as a biomarker for omega-3 fatty acid status in tissues. Lipids 43:45–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-007-3128-3
Subhadra B, Lochmann R, Rawles S, Chen R (2006) Effect of dietary lipid source on the growth, tissue composition and hematological parameters of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). Aquaculture 255:210–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.11.043
Sun S, Ye J, Chen J et al (2011) Effect of dietary fish oil replacement by rapeseed oil on the growth, fatty acid composition and serum non-specific immunity response of fingerling black carp, Mylopharyngodon piceus. Aquac Nutr 17:441–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2010.00822.x
Tacon AGJ, Metian M (2013) Fish matters: importance of aquatic foods in human nutrition and global food supply. Rev Fish Sci 21:22–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/10641262.2012.753405
Tacon AGJ, Metian M (2008) Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: trends and future prospects. Aquaculture 285:146–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AQUACULTURE.2008.08.015
Teoh CY, Ng WK (2016) The implications of substituting dietary fish oil with vegetable oils on the growth performance, fillet fatty acid profile and modulation of the fatty acid elongase, desaturase and oxidation activities of red hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis sp. Aquaculture 465:311–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.09.023
Thomassen MS, Røsjø C (1989) Different fats in feed for salmon: influence on sensory parameters, growth rate and fatty acids in muscle and heart. Aquaculture 79:129–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(89)90453-5
Tlusty MF, Tyedmers P, Bailey M et al (2019) Reframing the sustainable seafood narrative. Glob Environ Chang 59:101991. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GLOENVCHA.2019.101991
Tocher DR (2010) Fatty acid requirements in ontogeny of marine and freshwater fish. Aquac Res 41:717–732. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2008.02150.x
Tocher DR (2003) Metabolism and functions of lipids and fatty acids in teleost fish. Rev Fish Sci 11:107–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/713610925
Tocher DR (2015) Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and aquaculture in perspective. Aquaculture 449:94–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.01.010
Tocher DR, Betancor MB, Sprague M et al (2019) Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, EPA and DHA: bridging the gap between supply and demand. Nutrients 11:89. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010089
Torstensen BE, Bell JG, Rosenlund G et al (2005) Tailoring of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) flesh lipid composition and sensory quality by replacing fish oil with a vegetable oil blend. J Agric Food Chem 53:10166–10178. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf051308i
Torstensen BE, Espe M, Sanden M et al (2008) Novel production of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) protein based on combined replacement of fish meal and fish oil with plant meal and vegetable oil blends. Aquaculture 285:193–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.08.025
Torstensen BE, Lie Ø, Frøyland L (2000) Lipid metabolism and tissue composition in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)—effects of capelin oil, palm oil, and oleic acid-enriched sunflower oil as dietary lipid sources. Lipids 35:653–664. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-000-0570-6
Trullàs C, Fontanillas R, Tres A et al (2016) Acid and re-esterified rapeseed oils as alternative vegetable oils for rainbow trout diets: effects on lipid digestibility and growth. Aquaculture 451:186–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.09.021
Turchini GM, Francis DS (2009) Fatty acid metabolism (desaturation, elongation and beta-oxidation) in rainbow trout fed fish oil- or linseed oil-based diets. Br J Nutr 102:69–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114508137874
Turchini GM, Francis DS, Senadheera SPSD et al (2011) Fish oil replacement with different vegetable oils in Murray cod: Evidence of an “omega-3 sparing effect” by other dietary fatty acids. Aquaculture 315:250–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2011.02.016
Turchini GM, Trushenski JT, Glencross BD (2019) Thoughts for the future of aquaculture nutrition: realigning perspectives to reflect contemporary issues related to judicious use of marine resources in aquafeeds. N Am J Aquac 81:13–39. https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10067
Twining CW, Bernhardt JR, Derry AM et al (2021) The evolutionary ecology of fatty-acid variation: implications for consumer adaptation and diversification. Ecol Lett 24:1709–1731. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13771
Usher S, Han L, Haslam RP et al (2017) Tailoring seed oil composition in the real world: optimising omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid accumulation in transgenic Camelina sativa. Sci Rep 7:6570. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-06838-0
Usher S, Haslam RP, Ruiz-Lopez N et al (2015) Field trial evaluation of the accumulation of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in transgenic Camelina sativa: Making fish oil substitutes in plants. Metab Eng Commun 2:93–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meteno.2015.04.002
Waagbø R, Sandnes K, Torrissen OJ et al (1993) Chemical and sensory evaluation of fillets from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed three levels of N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids at two levels of vitamin E. Food Chem 46:361–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-8146(93)90005-Z
Wang Q, He G, Mai K (2016) Modulation of lipid metabolism, immune parameters, and hepatic transferrin expression in juvenile turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) by increasing dietary linseed oil levels. Aquaculture 464:489–496
Watanabe T (1982) Lipid nutrition in fish. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part b: Comparative Biochemistry 73:3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-0491(82)90196-1
Weldon A, Davis DA, Rhodes M, et al. (2023) Use of genetically modified canola oil as a replacement for fish oil in practical diets for whiteleg shrimp <i>Litopeneaus vannamei</i> Reared in Green Water Conditions. Aquaculture Res 2999827. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/2999827
Wei M, Parrish CC, Guerra NI et al (2021) Extracted microbial oil from a novel Schizochytrium sp. (T18) as a sustainable high DHA source for Atlantic salmon feed: impacts on growth and tissue lipids. Aquaculture 534:736249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.736249
Xie S, Lin Y, Wu T et al (2021) Dietary lipid levels affected growth performance, lipid accumulation, inflammatory response and apoptosis of Japanese seabass (Lateolabrax japonicus). Aquac Nutr 27:807–816. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.13225
Xu S, Zhang L, Wu Q et al (2011) Evaluation of dried seaweed Gracilaria lemaneiformis as an ingredient in diets for teleost fish Siganus canaliculatus. Aquacult Int 19:1007–1018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-011-9418-z
Yildirim-Aksoy M, Lim C, Davis DA et al (2007) Influence of dietary lipid sources on the growth performance, immune response and resistance of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, to Streptococcus iniae challenge. J Appl Aquacult 19:29–49. https://doi.org/10.1300/J028v19n02_02
Yu J, Wen X, You C et al (2021) Comparison of the growth performance and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) biosynthetic ability of red tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus♀ × O niloticus♂) fed fish oil or vegetable oil diet at different salinities. Aquaculture 542:736899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.736899
Zhang W, Belton B, Edwards P et al (2022) Aquaculture will continue to depend more on land than sea. Nature 603:E2–E4. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04331-3
Župan B, Ljubojević D, Pelić M et al (2016) Common carp response to the different concentration of linseed oil in diet. Slov Vet Res 53:19–28
Funding
This article receives no funding from any agencies.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
DKR (Divya K R) and IA (Isamma Akbarali) are the main authors and are responsible for the conception and design of the paper, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation and writing of the article. KV (Krishnakumar Velayudhannair) contributed significantly to the acquisition of data and materials and was involved in the critical revision of the final manuscript. ZAK (Zulhisyam Abdul Kari) and HJL (Hon Jung Liew) contributed to the critical revision of the article.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable. The manuscript does not need ethical approval.
Human and animal ethics
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Handling Editor: Daniel Merrifield
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Radhakrishnan, D.K., AkbarAli, I., Velayudhannair, K. et al. Exploring the role of plant oils in aquaculture practices: an overview. Aquacult Int (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-024-01538-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-024-01538-9