Abstract
Landscape-scale dynamics of the Kingdom of Aksum and its territories are exceptionally well-suited to help refine understanding of ancient complex polities in Africa and beyond. Archaeological explanations of ancient state formation have long centered on a small number of so-called primary cases that are thought to have inspired the rise of descendant, secondary states. Yet the rise of Aksum shows both local and multiregional influences which contradict diffusion and independent-origination focused explanations. Over four summer field-seasons (2005–2008), the Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) targeted a 196-km2 inland area between Aksum and the Red Sea recording 137 sites, including 7 ancient towns larger than 6 ha. We report results of spatial analysis of site sizes, site clustering, trade routes, and spatial associations of sites with landforms and hydrology. Least-cost path GIS analysis of trade routes from Adulis to Aksum is broadly consistent with the reports of the Periplus Maris Erythraei, yet many travelers may have opted for a more circuitous highland itinerary rather than a direct least-cost route. Rank-size analysis reveals no conclusive evidence of site-size hierarchies suggesting, at least in this area, complex polities may not be characterized by clear categories of different size settlements. Ripley’s K multiscalar cluster analysis shows a spatial distribution of sites lacking pronounced clustering/dispersion, indicating that settlement locations were not determined predominantly by the proximity of neighbors. Finally, satellite imagery modeling shows statistically significant associations between settlements, landforms, and water-rich areas most amenable to high-productivity agriculture, showing environmental conditions played a pivotal role in shaping landscape-scale site patterning.
Résumé
Les dynamiques à l’échelle du paysage du Royaume d’Aksoum et de ses territoires sont particulièrement bien adaptées pour aider à affiner la compréhension des systèmes politiques complexes anciens en Afrique et au-delà. Les explications archéologiques de la formation des états complexes ont longtemps été centrées sur un petit nombre de prétendus cas primaires que l’on a pensé avoir inspiré l’émergence des états secondaires qui en découlent. Ici, le cas d’Aksoum montre des influences à la fois locales et multirégionales qui contredisent des explications basées sur une diffusion ou une origine indépendante. Au cours de quatre saisons d’été de terrain (2005-2008), le Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) a ciblé une zone de l’intérieur des terres de 196 km² entre Aksoum et la mer Rouge, enregistrant 137 sites, dont sept villes anciennes couvrant 6 hectares et plus. Nous reportons les résultats de l’analyse spatiale des tailles des sites, des agglomérations de sites, des routes commerciales et des associations spatiales des sites avec les formes de paysages et l’hydrologie. L’analyse SIG des chemins de moindre coût (least-cost path) des routes commerciales depuis Adulis jusqu’à Aksoum est généralement cohérente avec les données du Periplus Maris Erythraei, même si de nombreux voyageurs ont pu opter pour un itinéraire dans les hautes terres plus sinueux plutôt qu’un chemin direct à moindre coût. L’analyse rang-taille ne révèle pas de preuve concluante des hierarchies site-taille suggérant, au moins dans cette zone, que les systèmes politiques complexes ne pourraient pas être caractérisés par des catégories évidentes liées aux différentes tailles des implantations. L’analyse des amas multiscalaires K de Ripley montre une répartition spatiale des sites qui manqué d’un rapport agrégation/répartition prononcé, indiquant que les endroits des lieux d’implantation n’étaient pas déterminés de manière prédominante par la proximité de voisins. Finalement, les modèles d’imageries satellitaires montrent des associations statistiquement significatives entre les implantations, la nature despaysages et les zones riches en eau les plus à même de développer une agriculture à haute productivité, montrant que les conditions environnementales ont joué un role primordial dans la mise en place d’un système de sites à l’échelle du paysage.
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Acknowledgments
Archaeological surveys conducted by the Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) in Gulo-Makeda were supported by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Standard Research Grants #410-2002-0846 and 410-2007-2472. We are grateful to the many ETAP team members who enthusiastically participated in our surveys, including Dr. Laurence Pavlish, Dr. Stephen Batiuk, Dr. Graham Wilson, Dr. Alicia Hawkins, Shannon Wood, Habtamu Mekonnen, Tsegu Hadgu, Michael Sowbeka, Abraha Bahta, Hagos Hailat, Tom Butler, Bereket Gabre-Tsadik, Girmai Kassaye, Hagos Guesh, Daniel Tsegu, Sonja Aaegesen, Michael Atsbeha, and Berhe Gabregsabier. ETAP survey ceramic analysis was completed by Dr. Andrea Manzo and Dr. Luisa Sernicola, while survey lithic remains were examined by Dr. Laurel Phillipson. We are grateful for the long-term support of Kebede Amare (Tigrai Agency for Tourism), Dr. Mitiku Haile (Mekelle University), the Eastern Tigrai Zonal Administration, and Jara Hailemariam and Dr. Yonas Beyene (both of the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage). This research would not have been possible without the kind support of Gulo-Makeda woreda and the many tabia and village leaders we encountered in our surveys. To them we offer our heartfelt thanks.
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Harrower, M.J., D’Andrea, A.C. Landscapes of State Formation: Geospatial Analysis of Aksumite Settlement Patterns (Ethiopia). Afr Archaeol Rev 31, 513–541 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-014-9165-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-014-9165-4