Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Five views of a secret: does cognition change during middle adulthood?

  • Original Investigation
  • Published:
European Journal of Ageing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined five aspects of change (or stability) in cognitive abilities in middle adulthood across a 12-year period. Data come from the Interdisciplinary Study on Adult Development. The sample consisted of N = 346 adults (43.8 years on average, 48.6% female). In total, 11 cognitive tests were administered to assess fluid and crystallized intelligence, memory, and processing speed. In a first series of analyses, strong measurement invariance was established. Subsequently, structural stability, differential stability, stability of divergence, absolute stability, and the generality of changes were examined. Factor covariances were shown to be equal across time, implying structural stability. Stability coefficients were around .90 for fluid and crystallized intelligence, and speed, indicating high, yet not perfect differential stability. The coefficient for memory was .58. Only in processing speed the variance increased across time, indicating heterogeneity in interindividual development. Significant mean-level changes emerged, with an increase in crystallized intelligence and decline in the other three abilities. A number of correlations among changes in cognitive abilities were significant, implying that cognitive changes in middle adulthood share up to 50 percent of variance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. An anonymous reviewer noted that correlated residuals were not common practice. However, in conjunction with longitudinal data, the assumption of correlated residuals appears reasonable according to the factor-analytic model, where an observed score in a manifest variable is composed of a common factor score (e.g., fluid intelligence), a specific factor score, and measurement error (cf. Meredith and Horn, 2001). The specific factor might, for example, contain effects specific to the stimulus material or specific to the task. These specific parts may be associated over time.

  2. In a correlational metric, the difference is smaller, namely, r = .34 versus r = .46. Still, this implies that the amount of shared variance between memory and processing speed increased from 12 to 21%.

References

  • Ackerman PL (1996) A theory of adult intellectual development: process, personality, interests, and knowledge. Intelligence 22:227–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allemand M, Zimprich D, Hertzog C (2007) Cross-sectional age differences and longitudinal age changes of personality in middle adulthood and old age. J Pers 75:323–358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anstey KJ, Hofer SM, Luszcz MA (2003) Cross-sectional and longitudinal patterns of dedifferentiation in late-life cognitive and sensory function: the effects of age, ability, attrition, and occasion of measurement. J Exp Psychol Gen 132:470–487

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babcock RL, Laguna KD, Roesch SC (1997) A comparison of the factor structure of processing speed for younger and older adults: testing the assumption of measurement equivalence across age groups. Psychol Aging 12:268–276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baltes PB, Cornelius SW, Spiro A, Nesselroade JR, Willis SL (1980) Integration versus differentiation in fluid/crystallized intelligence in old age. Dev Psychol 16:625–635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bickley PG, Keith TZ, Wolfle LM (1995) The three-stratum theory of cognitive abilities: test of the structure of intelligence across the life span. Intelligence 20:309–328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bollen KA (1989) Structural equations with latent variables. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Box GEP, Cox DR (1964) An analysis of transformations (with discussions). J R Stat Soc 26:211–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne MW, Cudeck R (1993) Alternative ways of model fit. In: Bollen KA, Long JS (eds) Testing structural equation models. Sage, Newbury Park, pp 136–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattell RB (1987) Intelligence: its structure, growth and action. North Holland, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Christensen H, Mackinnon A, Jorm AF, Korten A, Jacomb P, Hofer SM, Henderson S (2004) The Canberra longitudinal study: design, aims, methodology, outcomes, and recent empirical investigations. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 11:169–195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen J (1987) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, Rev. edn. Erlbaum, Hillsdale

  • Cunningham WR, Birren JE (1980) Age changes in the factor structure of intellectual abilities in adulthood and old age. Educ Psychol Meas 40:271–290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham WR, Clayton V, Overton W (1975) Fluid and crystallized intelligence in young adulthood and old age. J Gerontol 30:53–55

    Google Scholar 

  • de Frias CM, Lövdén M, Lindenberger U, Nilsson L-G (2007) Revisiting the dedifferentiation hypothesis with longitudinal multi-cohort data. Intelligence 35:381–392

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkel D, Pedersen NL, Plomin R, McClearn GE (1998) Longitudinal and cross-sectional twin data on cognitive abilities in adulthood: the Swedish adoption/twin study of aging. Dev Psychol 34:1400–1413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkel D, Reynolds CA, McArdle JJ, Gatz M, Pederson NL (2003) Latent growth curve analyses of accelerating decline in cognitive abilities in late adulthood. Dev Psychol 39:535–550

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghisletta P, de Ribaupierre A (2005) A dynamic investigation of cognitive dedifferentiation with control for retest: evidence from the Swiss interdisciplinary longitudinal study on the oldest old. Psychol Aging 20:671–682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghisletta P, Lindenberger U (2003) Age-based structural dynamics between perceptual speed and knowledge in the Berlin Aging Study: direct evidence for ability dedifferentiation in old age. Psychol Aging 18:696–713

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hertzog C, Bleckley MK (2001) Age differences in the structure of intelligence: influences of information processing speed. Intelligence 29:191–217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hertzog C, Nesselroade JR (2003) Assessing psychological change in adulthood: an overview of methodological issues. Psychol Aging 18:639–657

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hertzog C, Schaie KW (1986) Stability and change in adult intelligence: 1. Analysis of longitudinal covariance structures. Psychol Aging 1:159–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hertzog C, Schaie KW (1988) Stability and change in adult intelligence: 2. Simultaneous analysis of longitudinal means and covariance structures. Psychol Aging 3:122–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hess TM (2005) Memory and aging in context. Psychol Bull 131:383–406

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofer SM, Sliwinksi MJ (2001) Understanding ageing: an evaluation of research designs for assessing the interdependence of ageing-related changes. Gerontology 47:341–352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horn W (1983) Leistungsprüfsystem L-P-S (2., erw. Aufl.) [Battery of performance examination tests]. Hogrefe, Göttingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Horn JL (1985) Remodeling old models of intelligence. In: Wolman BB (ed) Handbook of intelligence. Wiley, New York, pp 267–300

    Google Scholar 

  • Horn JL, McArdle JJ (1992) A practical and theoretical guide to measurement invariance in aging research. Exp Aging Res 18:117–144

    Google Scholar 

  • Hultsch DF, Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Small BJ (1998) Memory change in the aged. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Juan-Espinosa M, García LF, Colom R, Abad FJ (2000) Testing the age differentiation hypothesis through Wechsler’s scales. Pers Individ Dif 29:1069–1075

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juan-Espinosa M, García LF, Escorial S, Rebollo I, Colom R, Abad FJ (2002) Age dedifferentiation hypothesis: evidence from the WAIS-III. Intelligence 30:395–408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen L, Hartmann P, Nyborg H (2008) The stability of general intelligence from early adulthood to middle-age. Intelligence 36:29–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum R, Browne M, Sugawara HM (1996) Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychol Methods 2:130–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin M, Zimprich D (2005) Cognitive development in midlife. In: Martin M, Willis SL (eds) Middle adulthood: a lifespan perspective. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 179–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin M, Grünendahl M, Schmitt M (2000) Persönlichkeit, kognitive Leistungsfähigkeit und Gesundheit in Ost und West: Ergebnisse der Interdisziplinären Längsschnittstudie des Erwachsenenalters (ILSE). Zeitschrift für Gerontologie und Geriatrie 33:111–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McArdle JJ, Prescott CA (1992) Age-based construct validation using structural equation modeling. Exp Aging Res 18:87–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Meredith W (1993) Measurement invariance, factor analysis, and factorial invariance. Psychometrika 58:525–543

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meredith W, Horn JL (2001) The role of factorial invariance in modeling growth and change. In: Collins LM, Sayer AG (eds) New methods for the analysis of change. American Psychological Association, Washington, pp 203–240

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Neale MC, Boker SM, Xie G, Maes HH (2003) Mx: statistical modeling, 6th edn. Department of Psychiatry, Richmond

    Google Scholar 

  • Oswald WD, Fleischmann UM (1995) Nürnberger-Alters-Inventar (NAI) [Nuremberg inventory of old age]. Hogrefe, Göttingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Oswald WD, Roth E (1987) Der Zahlen-Verbindungs-Test (ZVT) [The number connecting test]. Hogrefe, Göttingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK (2002) Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult lifespan. Psychol Aging 17:299–320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preece PF (1982) The fan-spread hypothesis and the adjustment for initial differences between groups in uncontrolled studies. Educ Psychol Meas 42:759–762

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salthouse TA (1996) The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol Rev 103:403–428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaie KW (1974) Translations in gerontology—from lab to life Intellectual functioning. Am Psychol 29:802–807

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaie KW (1994) The course of adult intellectual development. Am Psychol 49:304–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaie KW (1996) Intellectual development in adulthood—the Seattle Longitudinal Study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt DF, Botwinick J (1989) A factorial analysis of the age dedifferentiation hypothesis. In: Schaie KW, Bengston VL (eds) The course of later life: research and reflections. Springer, New York, pp 87–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Sims RC, Allaire JC, Gamaldo AA, Edwards CL, Whitfield KL (2009) An examination of dedifferentiation in cognition among African-American older adults. J Cross Cult Gerontol 24:193–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soederberg Miller LM, Lachman ME (2000) Cognitive performance and the role of control beliefs in midlife. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 7:69–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tewes U (1991) Hamburg-Wechsler-Intelligenztest für Erwachsene, Revision 1991 (HAWIE-R) (2.Auflage) [Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—revised (WAIS-R)]. Huber, Bern

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomer A, Cunningham WR (1993) The structure of cognitive speed measures in old and young adults. Multivariate Behav Res 28:1–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker-Drob EM, Salthouse T (2008) Adult age trends in the relations among cognitive abilities. Psychol Aging 23:453–460

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelinsky EM, Lewis KL (2003) Adult age differences in multiple cognitive functions: differentiation, dedifferentiation, or process-specific change? Psychol Aging 18:727–745

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimprich D (2002) Kognitive Entwicklung im Alter - Die Bedeutung der Informationsverarbeitungsgeschwindigkeit und sensorischer Funktionen für den kognitiven Alterungsprozess [Cognitive development in old age—on the significance of processing speed and sensory functioning for cognitive aging]. Dr. Kovac, Hamburg

  • Zimprich D, Martin M (2002) Can longitudinal changes in processing speed explain longitudinal changes in fluid intelligence? Psychol Aging 17:690–695

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimprich D, Martin M (2009) A multilevel factor analysis perspective on intellectual development in old age. In: Bosworth HB, Hertzog C (eds) Aging and cognition: research methodologies and empirical advances. APA, Washington, pp 53–76

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zimprich D, Allemand M, Hornung R (2006) Measurement invariance of the abridged sense of coherence scale in adolescents. Eur J Psychol Assess 22:280–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Gerontopsychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Zurich, Binzmühlestrasse, 14/Box 24, 8050, Zürich, Switzerland

    Daniel Zimprich & Anna Mascherek

Authors
  1. Daniel Zimprich
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anna Mascherek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daniel Zimprich.

Additional information

Communicated by M. Martin, S. L. Willis, C. Röcke, D. J. H. Deeg.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zimprich, D., Mascherek, A. Five views of a secret: does cognition change during middle adulthood?. Eur J Ageing 7, 135–146 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-010-0161-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-010-0161-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation