Abstract
Water scarcity is becoming a major issue worldwide due to water pollution and population growth, calling for advanced techniques for water reclamation. For instance, advanced oxidation processes using semiconductor photocatalysts appear promising, yet the light-harvesting capacity of semiconductors must be optimized to ensure complete degradation of contaminants. For this, semiconductors have been modified using electrochemical, sol–gel, hydrothermal, co-precipitation, and microwave-assisted methods. Here, we review electro-fabrication strategies for generating photocatalytic systems for wastewater remediation. We found that the photophysical properties of electrogenerated photocatalysts can be optimized by modulating electrochemical parameters, customizing the electrolyte component, integration of other synthetic routes, innovative technology in the electrochemical setup, and optimization at the final crystallization stages. We focus on anodic dissolution, anodization, metal electrodeposition, current and potential, electrolyte agitation and formulation, additives, electrosynthesis temperature, solvents, crystallization and unconventional electrochemical setup.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akerdi AG, Bahrami SH, Arami M, Pajootan E (2016) Photocatalytic discoloration of Acid Red 14 aqueous solution using titania nanoparticles immobilized on graphene oxide fabricated plate. Chemosphere 159:293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.06.020
Ali S, Hannula SP (2017) Titania nanotube powders obtained by rapid breakdown anodization in perchloric acid electrolytes. J Solid State Chem 249:189–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JSSC.2017.03.007
Ali I, Kim JO (2018) Visible-light-assisted photocatalytic activity of bismuth-TiO2 nanotube composites for chromium reduction and dye degradation. Chemosphere 207:285–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.05.075
Ali S, Granbohm H, Lahtinen J, Hannula SP (2018) Titania nanotubes prepared by rapid breakdown anodization for photocatalytic decolorization of organic dyes under UV and natural solar light. Nanoscale Res Lett. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-018-2591-5
Aliabadi BG, Gilani N, Pasikhani JV, Pirbazari AE (2020) Boosting the photoconversion efficiency of TiO2 nanotubes using UV radiation-assisted anodization as a prospective method: an efficient photocatalyst for eliminating resistant organic pollutants. Ceram Int 46:19942–19951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.05.061
Amrollahi P, Krasinski JS, Vaidyanathan R et al (2016) Electrophoretic deposition (EPD): fundamentals and applications from nano- to micro-scale structures pouya. In: Handbook of nanoelectrochemistry. Springer, Cham
Anicai L, Petica A, Patroi D et al (2015) Electrochemical synthesis of nanosized TiO2 nanopowder involving choline chloride based ionic liquids. Mater Sci Eng B Solid-State Mater Adv Technol 199:87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2015.05.005
Arfanis MK, Adamou P, Moustakas NG et al (2017) Photocatalytic degradation of salicylic acid and caffeine emerging contaminants using Titania nanotubes. Chem Eng J 310:525–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2016.06.098
Bencina M, Mozeti M, Junkar I et al (2019) Plasma-induced crystallization of TiO2 nanotubes. Materials (basel). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12040626
Bermudez RP, Alarcón Rodríguez V, Peña-Rodríguez G (2021) Electrochemical synthesis of titanium dioxide nanostructures and its application in the in dye photocatalytic removal. J Phys Conf Ser 2046:012041. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2046/1/012041
Bezares I, Del Campo A, Herrasti P, Muñoz-Bonilla A (2015) A simple aqueous electrochemical method to synthesize TiO2 nanoparticles. Phys Chem Chem Phys 17:29319–29326. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5cp05525c
Boretti A, Rosa L (2019) Reassessing the projections of the World Water Development Report. NPJ Clean Water 2:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-019-0039-9
Chen Y, Mu T (2021) Revisiting greenness of ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents. Green Chem Eng 2:174–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gce.2021.01.004
Chen CY, Ozasa K, Kitamura F et al (2015) Self-organization of TiO2 nanobamboos by anodization with deep eutectic solvent. Electrochim Acta 153:409–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2014.11.084
Čižmar T, Panžić I, Capan I, Gajović A (2021) Nanostructured TiO2 photocatalyst modified with Cu for improved imidacloprid degradation. Appl Surf Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.151026
Connor R (2017) World water development report, wastewater: the untapped resource. UNEP, New York
Costa JM, dos da Costa JGR, de Almeida Neto AF (2022) Techniques of nickel(II) removal from electroplating industry wastewater: Overview and trends. J Water Process Eng 46:102593. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JWPE.2022.102593
Costovici S, Petica A, Dumitru C, Cojocaru A (2014) Electrochemical synthesis of ZnO nanopowder involving choline chloride based ionic liquids. Chem Eng Trans 41:343–348. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1441058
Creager S (2007) Solvents and supporting electrolytes. In: Zoski CG (ed) Handbook of electrochemistry. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 57–72
Cui Y, Zhang Z, Li B et al (2018) Ultrasound assisted fabrication of AgBr/TiO2 nanotube arrays photoelectrode and its enhanced visible photocatalytic performance and mechanism for detoxification of 4-chlorphenol. Sep Purif Technol 197:189–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.01.018
David MT, Wilson P, Mahesh R et al (2018) Investigating the photocatalytic degradation property of Pt, Pd and Ni nanoparticles-loaded TiO2 nanotubes powder prepared via rapid breakdown anodization. Environ Technol 39:2994–3005. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2017.1371248
de Nepel TCM, Costa JM, Gurgel Adeodato Vieira M, de Almeida Neto AF (2020) Copper removal kinetic from electroplating industry wastewater using pulsed electrodeposition technique. Environ Technol. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2020.1793005
Dhayagude AC, Nikam SV, Kapoor S, Joshi SS (2017) Effect of electrolytic media on the photophysical properties and photocatalytic activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by simple electrochemical method. J Mol Liq 232:290–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2017.02.074
Dong J, Liu Z, Ariyanti D et al (2016) Self-organized ZnO nanorods prepared by anodization of Zinc in NaOH electrolyte. RSC Adv. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA16995C
Esa YAM, Sapawe N (2020) A short review on biosynthesis of cobalt metal nanoparticles. Mater Today Proc 31:378–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.183
Farrugia C, Di Mauro A, Lia F et al (2021) Suitability of different titanium dioxide nanotube morphologies for photocatalytic water treatment. Nanomaterials 11:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/NANO11030708
Feng SH, Li GH (2017) Hydrothermal and Solvothermal Syntheses. In: Ruren Xu, Xu Y (eds) Modern inorganic synthetic chemistry, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 73–104
Feng Y, Rijnaarts HHM, Yntema D et al (2020) Applications of anodized TiO2 nanotube arrays on the removal of aqueous contaminants of emerging concern: a review. Water Res 186:116327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116327
Ghahramanifard F, Rouhollahi A, Fazlolahzadeh O (2018) Electrodeposition of Cu-doped p-type ZnO nanorods; effect of Cu doping on structural, optical and photoelectrocatalytic property of ZnO nanostructure. Superlattices Microstruct 114:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spmi.2017.07.019
Goh HS, Adnan R, Farrukh MA (2011) ZnO nanoflake arrays prepared via anodization and their performance in the photodegradation of methyl orange. Turkish J Chem 35:375–391. https://doi.org/10.3906/kim-1010-742
Gong C, Zhang Z, Lin S et al (2019) Electrochemical synthesis of perovskite LaFeO3 nanoparticle-modified TiO2 nanotube arrays for enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. New J Chem 43:16506–16514. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9nj03908b
Hajnorouzi A (2020) Two ultrasonic applications for the synthesis of nanostructured copper oxide (II). Ultrason Sonochem 64:105020. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ULTSONCH.2020.105020
Hakimian A, McWilliams S, Ignaszak A (2019) ZnO synthesized using bipolar electrochemistry: structure and activity. Materials (basel) 12:535. https://doi.org/10.3390/MA12030535
Hanafi MF, Sapawe N (2019) Science direct electrosynthesis of ZrO2 nanoparticles with enhanced removal of phenolic compound. Mater Today Proc 19:1529–1532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.11.178
Hanafi FM, Sapawe N (2020) An overview of recent developments on semiconductor catalyst synthesis and modification used in photocatalytic reaction. Mater Today Proc 31:A151–A157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.01.262
Hassan NS, Jalil AA, Satar MAH et al (2020) Novel Fabrication of photoactive CuO/HY zeolite as an efficient catalyst for photodecolorization of malachite green. Top Catal 63:1005–1016. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11244-020-01314-Y
He H, Fan Q, Xue S, Yu C (2016) Sonochemistry assisted solvothermal preparation of BiOCl photocatalyst with high photocatalytic performance|request PDF. Chin J Inorg Chem 32:625–632
Hou X, Wang CW, Zhu WD et al (2014) Preparation of nitrogen-doped anatase TiO2 nanoworm/nanotube hierarchical structures and its photocatalytic effect. Solid State Sci 29:27–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOLIDSTATESCIENCES.2014.01.007
Ivanov A, Leese R, Spieser A (2015) Microelectrochemical machining. In: Qin Yi (ed) Micromanufacturing engineering and technology, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 121–145
Jaafar NF, Jalil AA, Triwahyono S et al (2015) Direct in situ activation of Ag0 nanoparticles in synthesis of Ag/TiO2 and its photoactivity. Appl Surf Sci 338:75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.02.106
Jaafar NF, Jalil AA, Triwahyono S (2017) Visible-light photoactivity of plasmonic silver supported on mesoporous TiO2 nanoparticles (Ag-MTN) for enhanced degradation of 2-chlorophenol: Limitation of Ag-Ti interaction. Appl Surf Sci 392:1068–1077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.09.112
Jaffry U, Mazario E, Lemus J et al (2016) The role of the temperature in the morphology and properties of zinc oxide structures obtained by electrosynthesis in aqueous solution. Mater Chem Phys 181:367–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2016.06.071
Jia H, Dong M, Yuan Z et al (2021) Deep eutectic solvent electrolysis for preparing N and P codoped titanium dioxide for rapid photodegradation of dyestuff and antibiotic. Ceram Int 47:23249–23258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2021.05.037
Jin R, Ye X, Fan J et al (2019) In Situ imaging of photocatalytic activity at titanium dioxide nanotubes using scanning ion conductance microscopy. Anal Chem 91:2605–2609. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.ANALCHEM.8B05311/SUPPL_FILE/AC8B05311_SI_001.PDF
Kamarudin NS, Jusoh R, Sukor NF et al (2021) Facile electro-assisted green synthesis of size-tunable silver nanoparticles and its photodegradation activity. J Clust Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10876-021-02028-1
Kardanzadeh M, Kazeminezhad I, Mosivand S (2018) Electrosynthesis and characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles and their application in removal of Congo red from water without UV radiation. Ceram Int 44:5652–5659. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CERAMINT.2017.12.214
Karthikeyan N, Sivaranjani T, Dhanavel S et al (2016) Visible light degradation of textile effluent by electrodeposited multiphase CuInSe2 semiconductor photocatalysts. J Mol Liq. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2016.12.019
Khairol NF, Sapawe N (2018) Electrosynthesis of ZnO nanoparticles deposited onto egg shell for degradation of Congo red. Mater Today Proc 5:21936–21939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.07.053
Khandel P, Kumar R, Deepak Y et al (2018) Biogenesis of metal nanoparticles and their pharmacological applications: present status and application prospects. Springer, Berlin
Kim SJ, Choi J (2008) Self-assembled arrays of ZnO stripes by anodization. Electrochem Commun 10:175–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ELECOM.2007.11.014
Kim TH, Go GM, Cho HB et al (2018) A novel synthetic method for N Doped TiO2 nanoparticles through plasma-assisted electrolysis and photocatalytic activity in the visible region. Front Chem 6:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2018.00458
Kong X, Li J, Yang C et al (2020) Fabrication of Fe2O3/g-C3N4@N-TiO2 photocatalyst nanotube arrays that promote bisphenol: a photodegradation under simulated sunlight irradiation. Sep Purif Technol 248:116924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116924
Kuroboshi M (2014) Electrosynthesis using water suspension system. Encycl Appl Electrochem. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6996-5_367
Küünal S, Rauwel P, Rauwel E (2018) Plant extract mediated synthesis of nanoparticles. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Lee HW, Jyan Teh S, May Chou P, Wei Lai C (2017) Photocatalytic reduction of aqueous mercury(II) using hybrid WO3-TiO2 nanotubes film. Curr Nanosci 13:1–9. https://doi.org/10.2174/1573413713666170616084447
Lim SY, Law CS, Liu L et al (2019) Electrochemical engineering of nanoporous materials for photocatalysis: fundamentals, advances, and perspectives. Catalysts 9:1–34. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal9120988
Liu K, Liu H, Li J, Xu Y (2016) The phases and morphology of CuInSe2 films prepared by different electrical deposition technologies. Int J Integr Ferroelectr 169:35–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584587.2016.1162608
Mahdi S, Mehdi P, Nasrabadi R et al (2018) Electrochemical synthesis of cobalt disulfide nanoparticles and their application as potential photocatalyst. J Mater Sci Mater Electron. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-018-9514-1
Mandati S, Dey SR, Joshi SV, Sarada BV (2019) Two-dimensional CuIn1−xGaxSe2 nanoflakes by pulse electrodeposition for photovoltaic applications. Sol Energy 181:396–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOLENER.2019.02.022
Marien CBD, Cottineau T, Robert D, Drogui P (2016) TiO2 Nanotube arrays: influence of tube length on the photocatalytic degradation of Paraquat. Appl Catal B Environ 194:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2016.04.040
Masudi A, Jusoh NWC, Liew PY (2020) Facile electrosynthesis of Fe3O4 nanoparticles mediated with sodium alginate for paracetamol degradation. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/808/1/012023
Meutzner F, Zschornak M, Nentwich M et al (2019) Electrodes: definitions and systematization—a crystallographers view. Phys Sci Rev. https://doi.org/10.1515/PSR-2018-0043
Meyerink JG, Kota D, Wood ST, Crawford GA (2018) Transparent titanium dioxide nanotubes: processing, characterization, and application in establishing cellular response mechanisms. Acta Biomater 79:364–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ACTBIO.2018.08.039
Mirsadeghi S, Zandavar H, Rahimi M et al (2020) Photocatalytic reduction of imatinib mesylate and imipenem on electrochemical synthesized Al2W3O12 nanoparticle: Optimization, investigation of electrocatalytic and antimicrobial activity. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem Eng Asp. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COLSURFA.2019.124254
Mohanty US (2011) Electrodeposition: a versatile and inexpensive tool for the synthesis of nanoparticles, nanorods, nanowires, and nanoclusters of metals. J Appl Electrochem 41:257–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10800-010-0234-3
Montakhab E, Rashchi F, Sheibani S (2020) Modification and photocatalytic activity of open channel TiO2 nanotubes array synthesized by anodization process. Appl Surf Sci 534:147581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.147581
Mutalib AAA, Jaafar NF (2022a) ZnO photocatalysts applications in abating the organic pollutant contamination: a mini review. Total Environ Res Themes 3–4:100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TOTERT.2022.100013
Mutalib AAA, Jaafar NF (2022b) Potential of deep eutectic solvent in photocatalyst fabrication methods for water pollutant degradation: a review. J Environ Chem Eng 10:107422. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JECE.2022.107422
Nami M, Sheibani S, Rashchi F (2021) Photocatalytic performance of coupled semiconductor ZnO–CuO nanocomposite coating prepared by a facile brass anodization process. Mater Sci Semicond Process 135:106083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2021.106083
Narges FF, Tohru S (2009) A novel method for synthesis of Titania nanotube powders using rapid breakdown anodization. Chem Mater 21:1967–1979. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm900410x
Nazri KHM, Sapawe N (2020) A short review on plants extract mediated synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles. Mater Today Proc 31:A38–A41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.10.966
Nie X, Wang J, Duan W et al (2021) One-step preparation of C-doped TiO2 nanotubes with enhanced photocatalytic activity by a water-assisted method. CrystEngComm 23:3015–3025. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ce00288k
Ocampo R, Echeverría F (2019) Effect of the anodization parameters on TiO2 nanotubes characteristics produced in aqueous electrolytes with CMC. Appl Surf Sci 469:994–1006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.11.097
Ong CB, Ng LY, Mohammad AW (2018) A review of ZnO nanoparticles as solar photocatalysts: synthesis, mechanisms and applications. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 81:536–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2017.08.020
Onoda K, Yoshikawa S (2007) Effect of electrolysis conditions on photocatalytic activities of the anodized TiO2 films. J Solid State Chem 180:3425–3433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc.2007.10.003
Pasikhani JV, Aliabadi BG, Gilani N, Pirbazari AE (2021) Construction of NiO and Ti3+ self-doped TNTs thin film as a high quantum yield p-n type heterojunction via a novel photoelectrodeposition-assisted anodization method. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 418:113433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2021.113433
Pauporte T, Rathousky J (2007) Electrodeposited mesoporous ZnO thin films as efficient photocatalysts for the degradation of dye pollutants. J Phys Chem C 111:7639–7644. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp071465f
Petrii OA (2015) Electrosynthesis of nanostructures and nanomaterials. Russ Chem Rev 84:159–193. https://doi.org/10.1070/rcr4438
Porto MB, Costa JM, de Almeida Neto AF (2020) Ni-W alloys and their anticorrosive properties: Ni removal efficiency from galvanic wastewater by electrodeposition. J Water Process Eng 36:101250. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JWPE.2020.101250
Protsenko VS, Kityk AA, Vasil’eva EA et al (2019) Electrodeposition of composite coatings as a method for immobilizing TiO2 photocatalyst. In: Inamuddin, Sharma G, Kumar A et al (eds) Nanophotocatalysis and environmental applications, 29th edn. Springer Nature, Basingstoke, pp 263–301
Pruna A, Wu Z, Zapien JA et al (2018) Enhanced photocatalytic performance of ZnO nanostructures by electrochemical hybridization with graphene oxide. Appl Surf Sci 441:936–944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.02.117
Qi X, Su G, Bo G et al (2015) Synthesis of NiO and NiO/TiO2 films with electrochromic and photocatalytic activities. Surf Coat Technol 272:79–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2015.04.020
Regonini D, Bowen CR, Jaroenworaluck A, Stevens R (2013) A review of growth mechanism, structure and crystallinity of anodized TiO2 nanotubes. Mater Sci Eng R Rep 74:377–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2013.10.001
Ribeiro GR, Bragança IMF, Rosa PAR, Martins PAF (2013) A laboratory machine for micro electrochemical machining. In: Davim JP (ed) Machining and machine-tools. Elsevier, pp 195–210
Rojviroon T, Rojviroon O, Sirivithayapakorn S, Angthong S (2021) Application of TiO2 nanotubes as photocatalysts for decolorization of synthetic dye wastewater. Water Resour Ind 26:100163. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WRI.2021.100163
Rosli SA, Alias N, Bashirom N et al (2021) Hexavalent chromium removal via photoreduction by sunlight on titanium–dioxide nanotubes formed by anodization with a fluorinated glycerol–water electrolyte. Catalysts 11:1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11030376
Roy P, Berger S, Schmuki P (2011) TiO2 nanotubes: synthesis and applications. Angew Chemie Int Ed 50:2904–2939. https://doi.org/10.1002/ANIE.201001374
Ryczek K, Kozieł M, Wiercigroch E et al (2020) Fast fabrication of nanostructured semiconducting oxides by anodic oxidation of brass. Mater Sci Semicond Process. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2020.105035
Sahrin NT, Nawaz R, Kait CF et al (2020) Visible light photodegradation of formaldehyde over TiO2 nanotubes synthesized via electrochemical anodization of titanium foil. Nanomaterials. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10010128
Sapawe N, Jalil AA, Triwahyono S et al (2013) Electrochemical strategy for grown ZnO nanoparticles deposited onto HY zeolite with enhanced photodecolorization of methylene blue: effect of the formation of SiOZn bonds. Appl Catal A Gen Complete. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATA.2013.02.025
Sapawe N, Ariff Rustam M, Hafizan Hakimin Mahadzir M et al (2019) A novel approach of in-situ electrobiosynthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles using crude plant extract as main medium for supporting electrolyte. Mater Today Proc 19:1441–1445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.11.166
Savitha R, Raghunathan R, Nolan K et al (2020) Evaluation of visible-light driven photocatalytic reaction by porphyrin coupled TiO2 nanotubes obtained via rapid breakdown anodization. J Environ Chem Eng 8:104382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104382
Schotten C, Nicholls TP, Bourne RA et al (2020) Making electrochemistry easily accessible to the synthetic chemist. Green Chem 22:3358–3375. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0gc01247e
Sebek M, Peppel T, Lund H et al (2021) Thermal annealing of ordered TiO2 nanotube arrays with water vapour-assisted crystallization under a continuous gas flow for superior photocatalytic performance. Chem Eng J 425:130619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130619
Shankar SS, Rai A, Ahmad A, Sastry M (2004) Rapid synthesis of Au, Ag, and bimetallic Au core-Ag shell nanoparticles using Neem (Azadirachta indica) leaf broth. J Colloid Interface Sci 275:496–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCIS.2004.03.003
Singh J, Dhaliwal AS (2022) Electrochemical and photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by using rGO/AgNWs nanocomposite synthesized by electroplating on stainless steel. J Phys Chem Solids 160:110358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpcs.2021.110358
Song Z, Zhang Q, Hu Z (2019) Electrochemical synthesis and characterization of bismuth pyrostannate nanoparticles for visible-light-driven photocatalysis. Optik (stuttg) 182:548–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2019.01.094
Sreekantan S, Lai CW, Mohd Zaki S (2014) The influence of lead concentration on photocatalytic reduction of Pb(II) ions assisted by Cu-TiO2 nanotubes. Int J Photoenergy. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/839106
Su Z, Zhang L, Jiang F, Hong M (2013) Formation of crystalline TiO2 by anodic oxidation of titanium. Prog Nat Sci Mater Int 23:294–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PNSC.2013.04.004
Suhaimy SHM, Lai CW, Tajuddin HA et al (2018) Impact of TiO2 nanotubes’ morphology on the photocatalytic degradation of simazine pollutant. Mater 11:2066. https://doi.org/10.3390/MA11112066
Sujatha G, Shanthakumar S, Chiampo F (2020) UV light-irradiated photocatalytic degradation of coffee processing wastewater using TiO2 as a catalyst. Environ 7:47. https://doi.org/10.3390/ENVIRONMENTS7060047
Syrek K, Zaraska L, Zych M, Sulka GD (2018) The effect of anodization conditions on the morphology of porous tungsten oxide layers formed in aqueous solution. J Electroanal Chem 829:106–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2018.09.054
Szkoda M, Trzciński K, Nowak AP et al (2020) The effect of morphology and crystalline structure of Mo/MoO3 layers on photocatalytic degradation of water organic pollutants. Mater Chem Phys. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2020.122908
Tiago GAO, Matias IAS, Ribeiro APC, Martins LMDRS (2020) Application of ionic liquids in electrochemistry-recent advances. Molecules 25:5812. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25245812
Ulum B, Kurniawan F (2017) Electrochemical method. In: International conference on advancements in materials, intell manuf ind autom, pp 205–208
Ulyankina A, Leontyev I, Smirnova N (2017) Electrochemical synthesis and photocatalytic activity of differently shaped CuOx particles. Nano Hybrids Compos 13:330–333. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/nhc.13.330
Ulyankina A, Molodtsova T, Gorshenkov M et al (2021) Photocatalytic degradation of ciprofloxacin in water at nano-ZnO prepared by pulse alternating current electrochemical synthesis. J Water Process Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101809
Valero GL, Moral-Parajes E, Román-Sánchez IM (2021) Wastewater treatment costs: a research overview through bibliometric analysis. Sustain 13:1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095066
Venkatesha TG, Arthoba Nayaka Y, Viswanatha R et al (2012) Electrochemical synthesis and photocatalytic behavior of flower shaped ZnO microstructures. Powder Technol 225:232–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2012.04.021
Vera ML, Traid HD, Henrikson ER et al (2018) Heterogeneous photocatalytic Cr(VI) reduction with short and long nanotubular TiO2 coatings prepared by anodic oxidation. Mater Res Bull 97:150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATERRESBULL.2017.08.013
Wang Y, Jiang T, Meng D et al (2014) Fabrication of nanostructured CuO films by electrodeposition and their photocatalytic properties. Appl Surf Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.08.144
Wang F, Lu X, Li XY (2016) Selective removals of heavy metals (Pb(2+), Cu(2+), and Cd(2+)) from wastewater by gelation with alginate for effective metal recovery. J Hazard Mater 308:75–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2016.01.021
Wang H, Zhang J, Jin X (2020a) Effects of anodization-assisted electrodeposition conditions on the fabrication of CuO-Cu2O coatings on nanoporous stainless steel. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2020:8104242. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8104242
Wang Y, Wang Q, Zhang H et al (2020b) CTAB-assisted solvothermal construction of hierarchical Bi2MoO6/Bi5O7Br with improved photocatalytic performances. Sep Purif Technol 242:116775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2020.116775
Wang Y, Zhang X, You S, Hu Y (2020c) One-step electrosynthesis of visible light responsive double-walled alloy titanium dioxide nanotube arrays for use in photocatalytic degradation of dibutyl phthalate. RSC Adv 10:21238–21247. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ra03627g
Wawrzyniak J, Karczewski J, Kupracz P et al (2020) Laser-assisted modification of titanium dioxide nanotubes in a tilted mode as surface modification and patterning strategy. Appl Surf Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.145143
Wei X, Wang C, Ding S et al (2021) One-step synthesis of Ag nanoparticles/carbon dots/TiO2nanotube arrays composite photocatalyst with enhanced photocatalytic activity. J Environ Chem Eng 9:104729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2020.104729
Xu L, Xu H, Wu S, Zhang X (2012) Applied surface science synergy effect over electrodeposited submicron Cu 2° films in photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue. Appl Surf Sci 258:4934–4938. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.01.122
Xu J, Wang W, Zhang X et al (2015) Electrodeposition of ZnSe thin film and its photocatalytic properties. J Alloys Compd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2015.01.013
Xue Z, Zhao W, Mu T (2019) Electrochemistry. In: Diego J, Ramón GG (eds) Deep eutectic solvents: synthesis, properties, and applications. Wiley, Weinhem, pp 335–354
Yanilkin VV, Nasretdinova GR, Kokorekin VA (2018) Mediated electrochemical synthesis of metal nanoparticles. Russ Chem Rev 87:1080–1110. https://doi.org/10.1070/rcr4827
Ye Y, Feng Y, Bruning H et al (2018) Photocatalytic degradation of metoprolol by TiO2 nanotube arrays and UV-LED: effects of catalyst properties, operational parameters, commonly present water constituents, and photoinduced reactive species. Appl Catal B Environ 220:171–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APCATB.2017.08.040
Youcef R, Benhadji A, Zerrouki D et al (2021) Electrochemical synthesis of CuO–ZnO for enhanced the degradation of Brilliant Blue (FCF) by sono-photocatalysis and sonocatalysis: kinetic and optimization study. React Kinet Mech Catal 133:541–561. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11144-021-01961-6
Yuan Y, Lei A (2020) Is electrosynthesis always green and advantageous compared to traditional methods? Nat Commun. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14322-z
Zamri MSFA, Sapawe N (2019) Kinetic study on photocatalytic degradation of phenol using green electrosynthesized TiO2 nanoparticles. Mater Today Proc 19:1261–1266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.11.131
Zargazi M, Entezari MH (2018) BFO thin film on the stainless steel mesh by anodic EPD: a visible light photocatalyst for degradation of Rhodamin B. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 365:185–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2018.07.042
Zargazi M, Entezari MH (2019) Bi2MoO6 nanofilms on a stainless steel mesh by the PS-PED method: photocatalytic degradation of diclofenac sodium as a pharmaceutical. Ultrason Sonochem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2019.104867
Zargazi M, Entezari MH (2020) Sono-electrodeposition of novel bismuth sulfide films on the stainless steel mesh: Photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI). J Hazard Mater 384:121300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121300
Zhang S, Peng F, Wang H et al (2011) Electrodeposition preparation of Ag loaded N-doped TiO2 nanotube arrays with enhanced visible light photocatalytic performance. CATCOM 12:689–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catcom.2011.01.001
Zhang C, Zhang X, Wang Y et al (2014) Facile electrochemical synthesis of CeO2 hierarchical nanorods and nanowires with excellent photocatalytic activities. New J Chem 38:2581–2586. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4nj00214h
Zhang Y, Liu W, Chen S et al (2020) Ionic liquids for the controllable preparation of functional TiO2 nanostructures: a review. Ionics (kiel) 26:5853–5877. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-020-03719-x
Zulfiqar M, Chowdhury S, Sufian S, Omar AA (2018) Enhanced photocatalytic activity of Orange II in aqueous solution using solvent-based TiO2 nanotubes: kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic studies. J Clean Prod 203:848–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2018.08.324
Zwilling V, Aucouturier M, Darque-Ceretti E (1999) Anodic oxidation of titanium and TA6 V alloy in chromic media an electrochemical approach. Electrochim Acta 45:921–929. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4686(99)00283-2
Funding
The authors are grateful for the financial support from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) for Short Term Grant (304/PKIMIA/6315610).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors participated in the study conception and design. The literature preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by AAAM and NFJ. The first draft of the manuscript was written by AAAM, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors revised and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no financial or nonfinancial conflicts of interest to declare regarding this article content.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Mutalib, A.A.A., Jaafar, N.F. Electrogeneration of active photocatalysts for wastewater remediation: a review. Environ Chem Lett 21, 981–1003 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01534-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01534-6