Abstract
Two million tonnes of pesticides are currently used globally to improve crop production, yet these pesticides induce adverse effects on soil quality and biodiversity. Moreover, less than 1% of pesticides reach the target pests, while the rest contaminate the surrounding environment. In particular, earthworms are exposed to pesticides and are thus an ideal biological model for ecotoxicological research. Here, we review acute and sub-lethal effects of pesticides on earthworms. We found that pesticides alter growth, reproduction, behaviour, essential enzymes, and DNA of earthworms, even at low pesticide concentrations. These sub-lethal biomarkers allow to evaluate the overall response of an earthworm to pesticides, and to identify the risk for other non-target organisms.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abate T, van Huis A, Ampofo JK (2000) Pest management strategies in traditional agriculture: an African perspective. Annu Rev Entomol 45:631–659
Ahmed ST (2015) The impact of four pesticides on the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris (Annelida: Oligochaeta). Zanco J Pure Appl Sci 27:5–10
Amossé J, Bart S, Péry AR, Pelosi C (2018) Short-term effects of two fungicides on enchytraeid and earthworm communities under field conditions. Ecotoxicol 27:300–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-018-1895-7
AMR (2020) Global herbicides market (Type, mode of action, crop type, geography) size, industry analysis, trends, opportunities, growthand forecast, 2013–2020. http://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/.
Atwood D, Paisley-Jones C (2017) Pesticides industry sales and usage: 2008–2012 market estimates. US Environ Prot Agency, Washington, DC 14:20460
Bayer DE, Foy CL (1982) Action and fate of adjuvants in soils. In: Adjuvants for herbicides, WSSA, Champaign, Ill, USA pp. 84–92
Benbrook CM (2016) Trends in glyphosate herbicide use in the United States and globally. Environ Sci Eur 28:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s1230
Bertrand M, Barot S, Blouin M, Whalen J, Oliveira T, Roger-Estrade J (2015) Earthworm services for cropping systems a review. Agron Sustain Dev 35:553–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-014-0269-7
Bose S, Kumar PS, Vo DVN, Rajamohan N, Saravanan R (2021) Microbial degradation of recalcitrant pesticides: a review. Environ Chem Lett. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01236-5
Bouche MB (1977) Strate gies lombriciennes. Soil organisms as components of ecosystems. Ecolo Bull-Stockh Sweden 25:122–132
Bustos-Obreg E, Goicochea RI (2002) Pesticide soil contamination mainly affects earthworm male reproductive parameters. Asian J Androl 4:195–199
Capowiez Y, Bastardie F, Costagliola G (2006) Sublethal effects of imadacloprid on the burrowing behaviour two earthworm species: modifications of the 3D burrow systems in artificial cores and consequences on gas diffusion in soil. Soil Biol Biochem 38:285–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.05.014
Capowiez Y, Cadoux S, Bouchant P, Ruy S, Roger-Estrade J, Richard G, Boizard H (2009) The effect of tillage type and cropping system on earthworm communities, macroporosity and water infiltration. Soil Till Res 105:209–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2009.09.002
Chang Y, Mao L, Zhang L, Zhang Y, Jiang H (2020) Combined toxicity of imidacloprid, acetochlor, and tebuconazole to zebrafish (Danio rerio): acute toxicity and hepatotoxicity assessment. Environ Sci Poll Res 13:1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07653-3
Cooke MS, Evans MD, Dizdaroglu M, Lunec J (2003) Oxidative DNA damage: mechanisms, mutation, and disease. FASEB J 17:1195–1214. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.02-0752rev
Correia FV, Moreira JC (2010) Effects of glyphosate and 2, 4-D on earthworms (Eisenia foetida) in laboratory tests. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 85:264–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-010-0089-7
Cunha L, Brown GG, Stanton DW, Silva ED, Hansel FA, Jorge G, Mckey D, Vidal-torrado P, Macedo RS, Velasquez E, James SW, Lavelle P, Kille P, Indio PD (2016) Soil animals and pedogenesis: the role of earthworms in anthropogenic soils. Soil Sci 181:110–125. https://doi.org/10.1097/ss.0000000000000144
Cunha FD, Sousa ND, Santos RF, Meneses JO, do Couto MV, de Almeida FT, de Sena Filho JG, Carneiro PC, Maria AN, Fujimoto RY (2018) Deltamethrin-induced nuclear erythrocyte alteration and damage to the gills and liver of colossoma macropomum. Environ Sci Poll Res Int 25:15102–15110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1622-1
Curieses SP, Sáenz ME, Alberdi JL, Martinez S, Larramendy ML, Di Marzio W (2018) Genotoxic evidences of glyphosate and chlorpyriphos on Eisenia fetida Coelomocytes. Adv Environ Stud 2:82–90. https://doi.org/10.36959/742/206
Daly GL, Lei YD, Teixeira C, Muir DC, Castillo LE, Jantunen LM, Wania F (2007) Organochlorine pesticides in the soils and atmosphere of Costa Rica. Environ Sci Technol 41:1124–1130. https://doi.org/10.1021/es062349d
Dasgupta R, Chakravorty PP, Kaviraj A (2011) Susceptibility of epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida to agricultural application of six insecticides. Chemosphere 84:724–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.03.016
Dasgupta R, Chakravorty PP, Kaviraj A (2012) Effects of carbaryl, chlorpyrifos and endosulfan on growth, reproduction and respiration of tropical epigeic earthworm, Perionyx excavatus (Perrier). J Environ Sci Health Part B Pestic Food Contam Agric Wastes 47:99–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2012.616771
De Silva PM, Pathiratne A, Gestel CA (2010) Toxicity of chlorpyrifos, carbofuran, mancozeb and their formulations to the tropical earthworm Perionyx excavates. Appl Soil Ecol 44:56–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2009.09.005
Dembélé K, Haubruge E, Gaspar C (1999) Recovery of acetylcholinesterase activity in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) after inhibition by organophosphate and carbamate compounds. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 62:731–742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001289900934
Denoyelle R, Rault M, Mazzia C, Mascle O, Capowiez Y (2007) Cholinesterase activity as a biomarker of pesticide exposure in Allolobophora chlorotica earthworms living in apple orchards under different management strategies. Environ Toxicol Chem Inter J 26:2644–2649. https://doi.org/10.1897/06-355.1
Devi PI, Thomas J, Raju RK (2017) Pesticide consumption in India: a spatiotemporal analysis. Agric Econ Res Rev 30:163–172. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-0279.2017.00015.5
Dominguez J, Parmelee RW, Edwards CA (2003) Interactions between Eisenia andrei (Oligochaeta) and nematode populations during vermicomposting. Pedobiologia 47:53–60. https://doi.org/10.1078/0031-4056-00169
Dutta A, Dutta H (2016) Some insights on the effect of pesticides on earthworms. Inter Res J Environ Sci 5:61–66
Edwards CA, Neuhauser EF (1989) Earthworms in waste and environmental management. SPB Acad Publ Hauge. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7491(89)90248-0
Edwards CA, Lofty JR (1971) Effects of insecticides on soil invertebrates. Rep Rothamsted Exp Stn. For, 1971.
EEA (2003) Europe’s environment: the third assessment. European environment agency, environmental assessment report No vol. 10: pp. 341.
Eijsackers H, Beneke P, Maboeta M, Louw JP, Reinecke AJ (2005) The implications of copper fungicide usage in vineyards for earthworm activity and resulting sustainable soil quality. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 62:99–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2005.02.017
El Okda ES, Abdel-Hamid MA, Hamdy AM (2017) Immunological and genotoxic effects of occupational exposure to alpha-cypermethrin pesticide. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 30:603–615. https://doi.org/10.13075/ijomeh.1896.00810
Espín S, Martínez-López E, Jiménez P, María-Mojica P, García-Fernández AJ (2014) Effects of heavy metals on biomarkers for oxidative stress in Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus). Environ Res 129:59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2013.11.008
FICCI (2015) Ushering in the 2nd green revolution: role of crop protection chemicals. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, New Delhi
Foley ME, Sigler V, Gruden CL (2008) A multiphasic characterization of the impact of the herbicide acetochlor on freshwater bacterial communities. ISME J 2:56–66. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2007.99
Frampton GK, Jansch S, Scott-Fordsmand JJ, Rombke J, Van den Brink PJ (2006) Effects of pesticides on soil invertebrates in laboratory studies: a review and analysis using species sensitivity distributions. Environ Toxicol Chem 25:2480–2489. https://doi.org/10.1897/05-438r.1
Gajalakshmi S, Abbasi SA (2004) Earthworms and vermicomposting. IJBT 3:486–494
Garcia-Torres T, Giuffre L, Romaniuk R, Rios RP, Pagano EA (2014) Exposure assessment to glyphosate of two species of annelids. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 93:209–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-014-1312-8
Gaupp-Berghausen M, Hofer M, Rewald B, Zaller JG (2015) Glyphosate-based herbicides reduce the activity and reproduction of earthworms and lead to increased soil nutrient concentrations. Scient Repor 5(12886):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep12886
Gautam A, Ray A, Manna S, Sarkar MP, Ghosh AR, Ray M, Ray S (2020) Shift in phagocytosis, lysosomal stability, lysozyme activity, apoptosis and cell cycle profile in the coelomocytes of earthworm of polluted soil near a tannery field of India. Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 200:110713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110713
Ge J, Xiao Y, Chai Y, Yan H, Wu R, Xin X, Wang D, Yu X (2018) Sub-lethal effects of six neonicotinoids on avoidance behavior and reproduction of earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 162:423–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.06.064
Ghosh S, Ojha PK, Carnesecchi E, Lombardo A, Roy K, Benfenati E (2020) Exploring QSAR modeling of toxicity of chemicals on earthworm. Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 190:110067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110067
Gill JPK, Sethi N, Mohan A, Datta S, Girdhar M (2018) Glyphosate toxicity for animals. Environ Chem Lett 16:401–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-017-0689-0
Gomes SI, Hansen D, Scott-Fordsmand JJ, Amorim MJ (2015) Effects of silver nanoparticles to soil invertebrates: oxidative stress biomarkers in Eisenia fetida. Environ Pollut 1:49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.01.012
Govindarajan B, Prabaharan V (2015) Cocoon production assessment for Eudrilus eugeniae exposed to the monocrotophos (organophosphorus insecticides). Inter J Curr Sci Res 1:174–179
Gowri S, Thangaraj R (2020) Studies on the toxic effects of agrochemical pesticide (Monocrotophos) on physiological and reproductive behavior of indigenous and exotic earthworm species. Int J Environ Health Res 30:212–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2019.1590538
Gupta P (2004) Pesticide exposure—Indian scene. Toxicology 198:83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2004.01.021
Hackenberger DK, Palijan G, Lončarić Ž, Glavaš OJ, Hackenberger BK (2018a) Influence of soil temperature and moisture on biochemical biomarkers in earthworm and microbial activity after exposure to propiconazole and chlorantraniliprole. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 148:480–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.10.072
Hackenberger DK, Stjepanović N, Lončarić Ž, Hackenberger BK (2018b) Acute and subchronic effects of three herbicides on biomarkers and reproduction in earthworm Dendrobaena veneta. Chemosphere 208:722–730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.06.047
Hale CM, Frelich LE, Reich PB, Pastor J (2005) Effects of European earthworm invasion on soil characteristics in northern hardwood forests of Minnesota, USA. Ecosystems 8:911–927. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-005-0066-x
Han Y, Zhu L, Wang J, Wang J, Xie H, Zhang S (2014) Integrated assessment of oxidative stress and Dna damage in earthworms (Eisenia fetida) exposed to azoxystrobin. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 107:214–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.06.006
Hattab S, Boughattas I, Boussetta H, Viarengo A, Banni M, Sforzini S (2015) Transcriptional expression levels and biochemical markers of oxidative stress in the earthworm Eisenia andrei after exposure to 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-D). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 122:76e82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.07.014
Hayes JD, Flanagan JU, Jowsey IR (2005) Glutathione transferases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 45:51–88. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.095857
Helling B, Reinecke SA, Reinecke AJ (2000) Effects of the fungicide copper oxychloride on the growth and reproduction of Eisenia fetida (Oligochaeta). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 46:108–116. https://doi.org/10.1006/eesa.1999.1880
Hirano T, Tamae K (2010) Heavy metal-induced oxidative DNA damage in earthworms: a review. Appl Environ Soil Sci. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/726946
Hu S, Zhang W, Li J, Lin K, Ji R (2016) Antioxidant and gene expression responses of Eisenia fetida following repeated exposure to BDE209 and Pb in a soil-earthworm system. Sci Total Environ 15:163–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.194
Jepson PC, Guzy M, Blaustein K, Sow M, Sarr M, Mineau P, Kegley S (2014) Measuring pesticide ecological and health risks in West African agriculture to establish an enabling environment for sustainable intensification. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 369(1639):20130491. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0491
Jeyanthi V, Paul JA, Selvi BK, Karmegam N (2016) Comparative study of biochemical responses in three species of earthworms exposed to pesticide and metal contaminated soil. Environ Process 1:167–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-016-0131-9
Jeyaprakasam A, Muniyandi B, James AJ, Karmegam N, Ponnuchamy K (2021) Assessment of earthworm diversity and pesticide toxicity in Eudrilus eugeniae. Environ Chem Ecotoxicol 1:23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2020.11.001
Jiang H, Yang H, Kong X, Wang S, Liu D, Shi S (2012) Response of acid and alkaline phosphatase activities to copper exposure and recovery in freshwater fish Carassius auratus gibelio var. Life Sci J 9:233–245
Jouquet P, Blanchart E, Capowiez Y (2014) Utilization of earthworms and termites for the restoration of ecosystem functioning. Appl Soil Ecol 73:34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2013.08.004
Jovana M, Tanja M, Mirjana S (2014) Effects of three pesticides on the earthworm Eisenia fetida (Savigny 1826) under laboratory conditions: assessment of mortality, biomass and growth inhibition. Europ J Soil Biol 62:127–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2014.03.003
Kanianska R, Jauová J, Makovníková J, Kizeková M (2016) Assessment of relationships between earthworms and soil abiotic and biotic factors as a tool in sustainable agricultural. Sustainability 8:906. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8090906
Kavitha V, Anandhan R, Alharbi NS, Kadaikunnan S, Khaled JM, Almanaa TN, Govindarajan M (2020) Impact of pesticide monocrotophos on microbial populations and histology of intestine in the Indian earthworm Lampito mauritii (Kinberg). Micro Patho 139:103893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103893
Khan MJ, Zia MS, Qasim M (2010) Use of pesticides and their role in environmental pollution. World Acad Sci Eng Technol 72:122–128
Koelle GB (2013) Cholinesterases and anticholinesterase agents. Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin
Kucher O (2007) Ukrainian agriculture and agri-environmental concern. Univ. für Bodenkultur, Department für Wirtschafts-und Sozialwiss., Inst. für Nachhaltige Wirtschaftsentwicklung
Lammertyn S, Masín CE, Zalazar CS, Fernandez ME (2021) Biomarkers response and population biological parameters in the earthworm Eisenia fetida after short term exposure to atrazine herbicide. Ecol Indicat 121:107173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107173
Lanno R, Wells J, Conder J, Bradham K, Basta N (2004) The bioavailability of chemicals in soil for earthworms. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 57:39–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.200418292
Li L, Yang D, Song Y, Shi Y, Huang B, Bitsch A, Yan J (2017) The potential acute and chronic toxicity of cyfluthrin on the soil model organism, Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 144:456–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.06.064
Li X, Zhu L, Du Z, Li B, Wang J, Wang J, Zhu Y (2018a) Mesotrione-induced oxidative stress and DNA damage in earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Ecol Indicat 95:436–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.08.001
Li B, Xia X, Wang J, Zhu L, Wang J, Wang G (2018b) Evaluation of acetamiprid-induced genotoxic and oxidative responses in Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 161:610–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.06.022
Li M, Xu G, Yu R, Wang Y, Yu Y (2019) Bioaccumulation and toxicity of pentachloronitrobenzene to earthworm (Eisenia fetida). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 15:429–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.03.016
Li M, Ma X, Saleem M, Wang X, Sun L, Yang Y, Zhang Q (2020) Biochemical response, histopathological change and DNA damage in earthworm (Eisenia fetida) exposed to sulfentrazone herbicide. Ecol Indicat 1:106465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106465
Liu X, Sun Z, Chong W, Sun Z, He C (2009) Growth and stress responses of the earthworm escherichia coli o157:h7 in an artificial soil. Microb Pathog 46:266–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2009.02.001
Liu T, Wang X, You X, Chen D, Li Y, Wang F (2017) Oxidative stress and gene expression of earthworm (Eisenia fetida) to clothianidin. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 142:489–496
Liu T, Wang X, Chen D, Li Y, Wang F (2018a) Growth, reproduction and biochemical toxicity of chlorantraniliprole in soil on earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 150:18–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.12.010
Liu T, Chen D, Li Y, Wang X, Wang F (2018b) Enantioselective bioaccumulation and toxicity of the neonicotinoid insecticide dinotefuran in earthworms (Eisenia fetida). J Agricul Food Chem 66:4531–4540. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00285.s001
Liu T, Zhang X, Wang X, Chen D, Li Y, Wang F (2018c) Comparative toxicity and bioaccumulation of two dinotefuran metabolites, UF and DN, in earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Environ Poll 234:988–996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.007
Liu T, Liu Y, Fang K, Zhang X, Wang X (2020) Transcriptome, bioaccumulation and toxicity analyses of earthworms (Eisenia fetida) affected by trifloxystrobin and trifloxystrobin acid. Environ Poll 265:115100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115100
Luchini LC, Peres TB, de Andrea MM (2000) Monitoring of pesticide residues in a cotton crop soil. J Environ Sci Health B 35:51–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601230009373253
Ma J, Cheng C, Du Z, Li B, Wang J, Wang J, Wang Z, Zhu L (2019) Toxicological effects of pyraclostrobin on the antioxidant defense system and DNA damage in earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Ecol Indicat 101:111–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.01.015
Mahanthaswamy MV, Patil BV (2003) Toxicity of pesticides to different species of earthworms. Karnataka J Agric Sci 16:560–561
Mandal S, Chakravorty PP, Kundu JK (2017) Relative toxicity of two selected fungicides on acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase activity of epigeic earthworm Eisenia Fetida (Oligochaeta). World Wide J Multidis Res Develop/ WWJMRD 4:14–17
Meyer JN, Leung MC, Rooney JP, Sendoel A, Hengartner MO, Kisby GE, Bess AS (2013) Mitochondria as a target of environmental toxicants. Toxicol Sci 134:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kft102
Miglani R, Bisht SS (2019) World of earthworms with pesticides and insecticides. Interdis Toxicol 1:71–82. https://doi.org/10.2478/intox-2019-0008
Montana TU (2016) Research reveals widespread herbicide use on North American wildlands. ScienceDaily. www.scien cedai ly.com/relea ses/2016/06/16062 91358 06.htm.
Morawska K, Jedlińska K, Smarzewska S, Metelka R, Ciesielski W, Guziejewski D (2019) Analysis and DNA interaction of profluralin herbicide. Environ Chem Lett 17:1359–1365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-019-00865-1
Moriarty F (1983) Ecotoxicology: the study of pollutants in ecosystems. Academic Press, London
Murphy SD, Porter S (1966) Effects of toxic chemicals on some adaptive liver enzymes, liver glycogen, and blood glucose in fasted rats. Biochem Pharmacol 15:1665–1676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-018-1914-8
Murray DL (1994) Cultivating crisis: the human cost of pesticides in Latin America. University of Texas Press, Austin
Nahmani J, Hodson ME, Black S (2007) Effects of metals on life cycle parameters of the earthworm Eisenia fetida exposed to field-contaminated metal-polluted soils. Environ Pollut 149:44–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.12.018
Nakagawa L, Luchini L, Musumeci M, Matallo M (1996) Behavior of atrazine in soils of tropical zone: degradation, mobility and uptake of atrazine residues from soils in a crop rotation system (maize/beans). J Environ Sci Health B 31:203–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601239609372983
Nuutinen V (2011) The meek shall inherit the burrow: feedback in earthworm soil modification. In: Karaca A (ed) Biology of earthworms. Springer, Berlin
Obopile M, Munthali D, Matilo B (2008) Farmers’ knowledge, perceptions and management of vegetable pests and diseases in Botswana. Crop Prot 27:1220–1224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2008.03.003
Owagboriaye F, Dedeke G, Bamidele J, Aladesida A, Isibor P, Feyisola R, Adeleke M (2020) Biochemical response and vermiremediation assessment of three earthworm species (Alma millsoni, Eudrilus eugeniae and Libyodrilus violaceus) in soil contaminated with a glyphosate-based herbicide. Ecol Indicat 108:105678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105678
Panda S, Sahu SK (2000) Assessment of recovery of population, biomass and reproduction of the earthworm Drawida willsi following the application of malathion under field conditions. Biol Fertil Soils 32:82–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003740000221
Paoletti M (1999) The role of earthworms for assessment of sustainability and as bioindicators. Agric Ecosys Environ 74:137–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-50019-9.50011-x
Paravani EV, Simoniello MF, Poletta GL, Casco VH (2019) Cypermethrin induction of DNA damage and oxidative stress in zebrafish gill cells. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 173:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.02.004
Parihar K, Kumar R, Sankhla MS, Shefali G (2019) Impact of heavy metals on survivability of earthworms. Int Med-Legal Rep J, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3497689
Pariona A (2017) Top pesticide using countries. Available: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-pesticide-consuming-countries-of-the world.html.
Pawar S, Ahmad S (2013) Impact of Organophosphate (Chloropyriphose) on weight and growth of earthworm, Eisenia foetida. Int J Sci Res 2013:2319–7064
Pelosi C, Joimel S, Makowski D (2013) Searching for a more sensitive earthworm species to be used in pesticide homologation tests—a meta-analysis. Chemosphere 90:895–900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.09.034
Pelosi C, Barot S, Capowiez Y, Hedde M, Vandenbulcke F (2014) Pesticides and earthworms a review. Agron Sustain Dev 34:199–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-013-0151-z
Pelosi C, Lebrun M, Beaumelle L, Cheviron N, Delarue G, Nelieu S (2016) Sublethal effects of epoxiconazole on the earthworm Aporrectodea icterica. Environ Sci Poll Res 23:3053–3061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4845-4
Pereira JL, Antunes SC, Ferreira AC, Goncalves F, Pereira R (2010) Avoidance behavior of earthworms under exposure to pesticides: is it always chemosensorial? J Environ Sci Health B. 45:229–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601
Pereira PC, Soares LO, Júnior SF, Saggioro EM, Correia FV (2019) Sub-lethal effects of the pesticide imazalil on the earthworm Eisenia andrei: reproduction, cytotoxicity, and oxidative stress. Environ Sci Poll Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05440-3
Pimentel D, Burgess M (2014) Environmental and economic costs of the application of pesticides primarily in the United States. In: Pimentel D, Peshin R (eds) Integrated pest management. Springer, Berlin, pp 47–71
Pimentel D, McLaughlin L, Zepp A, Lakitan B, Kraus T, Kleinman P, Vancini F, Roach WJ, Graap E, Keeton WS, Selig G (1991) Environmental and economic effects of reducing pesticide use. Bioscience 41:402–409
Pimentel D, Greiner A (1997) Environmental and socio-economic costs of pesticide use. In: Pimentel D (ed) Techniques for reducing pesticide use: environmental and economic benefits.John, Chichester, pp 51–78
Piola L, Fuchs J, Oneto ML, Basack S, Kesten E, Casabé N (2013) Comparative toxicity of two glyphosate-based formulations to Eisenia Andrei under laboratory conditions. Chemosphere 91:545–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.12.036
Piscopo M, Ricciardiello M, Palumbo G, Troisi J (2016) Selectivity of metal bioaccumulation and its relationship with glutathione S-transferase levels in gonadal and gill tissues of Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to Ni (II), Cu (II) and Cd (II). Rendiconti Lincei 27:737–748. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-016-0564-0
Ponnuchamy M, Kapoor A, Kumar PS, Vo DVN, Balakrishnan A, Jacob MM, Sivaraman P (2021) Sustainable adsorbents for the removal of pesticides from water: a review. Environ Chem Lett. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01183-1
Qi S, Wang C, Chen X, Qin Z, Li X, Wang C (2013) Toxicity assessments with Daphnia magna of Guadipyr, a new neonicotinoid insecticide and studies of its effect on acetylcholinesterase (AChE), glutathione S-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT) and chitobiase activities. Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 98:339–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2013.09.013
Qiao Z, Zhang F, Yao X, Yu H, Sun S, Li X, Zhang J, Jiang X (2019) Growth, DNA damage and biochemical toxicity of cyantraniliprole in earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Chemosphere 236:124328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.07.059
R¨ombke J, Garcia MV, Scheffczyk A (2007) Effects of the fungicide benomyl on earthworms in laboratory tests under tropical and temperate conditions. Archi Environ Contam Toxicol 53:590–598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-006-0219-8
Rainwater TR, Wu TH, Finger AG, Canas JE, Yu L, Reynolds KD, Coimbatore G, Barr B, Platt SG, Cobb GP et al (2007) Metals and organochlorine pesticides in caudal scutes of crocodiles from Belize and Costa Rica. Sci Total Environ 373:146–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.11.010
Rajashree Mhamane P, Reddy P (2014) Effect of Organophosphate Pesticide “Methyl Parathion” and “Phorate” on earthworm central nervous system. Int J Rec Tre Sci Tech 10:483–485
Rani R, Singh D, Yadav J, Neetu (2017) Pesticides’ induced toxicity on survivability of ability of Eisenia fetida. Bioscan 12:761–764
Rao JV, Kavitha P (2004) Toxicity of azodrin on the morphology and acetylcholinesterase activity of the earthworm Eisenia foetida. Environ Res 96:323–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2004.02.014
Rao JV, Pavan YS, Madhavendra SS (2003) Toxic effects of chlorpyrifos on morphology and acetylcholinesterase activity in the earthworm, Eisenia foetida. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 54:296–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-6513(02)00013-1
Rathore HS, Nollet LM (eds) (2012) Pesticides: evaluation of environmental pollution. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Rault M, Mazzia C, Capowiez Y (2007) Tissue distribution and characterization of cholinesterase activity in six earthworm species. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 147:340–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2007.01.022
Rault M, Collange B, Mazzia C, Capowiez Y (2008) Dynamics of acetylcholinesterase activity recovery in two earthworm species following exposure to ethyl-parathion. Soil Biol Biochem 40:3086–3091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.09.010
Reddy NC, Rao JV (2008) Biological response of earthworm, Eisenia foetida (Savigny) to an organophosphorous pesticide, profenofos. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 71:574–582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2008.01.003
Rico A, Sabater C, Castillo MÁ (2016) Lethal and sub-lethal effects of five pesticides used in rice farming on the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 127:222–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.02.004
Robidoux PY, Hawari J, Thiboutot S, Ampleman G, Sunahara GI (1999) Acute toxicity of 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene in earthworm (Eisenia andrei). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 44:311–321. https://doi.org/10.1006/eesa.1999.1839
Rochfort SJ, Ezernieks V, Yen AL (2009) NMR-based metabolomics using earthworms as potential indicators for soil health. Metabolomics 5:95–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11306-008-0140-4
Roriguez-Campos J, Dendooven L, Alvarez-Bernal D, Contreras-Ramos SM (2014) Potential of earthworm to accelerate removal of organic contaminants from soil: a review. Appl Soil Ecol 79:10–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2014.02.010
Salvio C, Menone ML, Rafael S, Iturburu FG, Manetti PL (2016) Survival, reproduction, avoidance behavior and oxidative stress biomarkers in the earthworm Octolasion cyaneum exposed to glyphosate. Bullet Environ Contam Toxicol 96:314–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-015-1700-8
Samal S, Sahoo S, Mishra CS (2017) Morpho-histological and enzymatic alterations in earthworms Drawida willsi and Lampito mauritii exposed to urea, phosphogypsum and paper mill sludge. Chem Ecol 33:762–776. https://doi.org/10.1080/02757540.2017.1357700
Sameena F, Ayesha SA (2011) Effects of Dichlorovos organophosphate on growth reproduction, and avoidance behavior of earthworm Eisenia Foetida. Iran J Toxicol 5:495–501
Sanchez-Hernandez JC, Ríos JM, Attademo AM (2018) Response of digestive enzymes and esterases of ecotoxicological concern in earthworms exposed to chlorpyrifos-treated soils. Ecotoxicol 27:890–899. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-018-1914-8
Santadino M, Coviella C, Momo F (2014) Glyphosate sublethal effects on the population dynamics of the earthworm Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826). Water Air Soil Poll 225:2207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-014-2207-3
Santos MJ, Soares AM, Loureiro S (2010) Joint effects of three plant protection products to the terrestrial isopod Porcellionides pruinosus and the collembolan Folsomia candida. Chemosphere 80:1021–1030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.05.031
Sanyal S, Chakravorty PP (2020) Response of life history and enzyme biomarkers in oligochaete earthworm due to synthetic pyrethroid contamination: an ecotoxicological study. Int Res J Multidis Scope (IRJMS) 1:29–37
Schreck E, Gontier L, Dumat C, Geret F (2012) Ecological and physiological effects of soil management practices on earthworm communities in French vineyards. Euro J Soil Biol 52:8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2012.05.002
Schreinemachers P, Tipraqsa P (2012) Agricultural pesticides and land use intensification in high, middle and low income countries. Food Policy 37:616–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.06.003
Schreinemachers P, Afari-Sefa V, Heng CH, Dung PT, Praneetvatakul S, Srinivasan R (2015) Safe and sustainable crop protection in Southeast Asia: status, challenges and policy options. Environ Sci Policy 54:357–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.07.017
Shahzad A, Pawar SS (2017) Assessment of Mortality (Lc50) of cythion and dieldrine by filter paper contact test on earthworm Esenia Feotida. Int J Adv Res Ideas Innov Techno 3:387–392
Shao Y, Hou K, Du Z, Li B, Wang J, Juhasz A, Wang J, Zhu L (2019a) Evaluation of the toxicity of 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium tetrafluoroborate using earthworms (Eisenia fetida) in two soils. Sci Total Environ 686:946–958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.010
Shao Y, Wang J, Wang J, Du Z, Li B, Zhu L, Juhasz A, Liu X, Xu Y, Li W (2019b) Oxidative stress and genotoxic effects in earthworms induced by five imidazolium bromide ionic liquids with different alkyl chains. Chemosphere 227:570–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.04.091
Sharma A, Kumar V, Shahzad B, Tanveer M, Sidhu GP, Handa N, Kohli SK, Yadav P, Bali AS, Parihar RD, Dar OI et al (2019) Worldwide pesticide usage and its impacts on ecosystem. SN Appl Sci 1:1446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1485-1
Shefali BL, Yadav RG (2018) Assessment of histological alterations induced by heavy metal exposure on earthworms. IJCS 6:1436–1438
Shelga (2006) Nepal country situation report on persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Society for Human Rights, Environment. Law and Governance Activities, New Baneshwor. http://ipen.org/sites/default/files/documents/3nep_nepal_country_situation_report-en.pdf
Shen CC, Shen DS, Shentu JL, Wang MZ, Wan MY (2015) Could humic acid relieve the biochemical toxicities and DNA damage caused by nickel and deltamethrin in earthworms (Eisenia foetida)? Environ Sci Proc 17:2074–2081. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5em00288e
Shi Y, Shi Y, Zheng L (2019) Individual and cellular responses of earthworms (Eisenia fetida) to endosulfan at environmentally related concentrations. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2019.103299
Shi Z, Wen M, Zhang J, Tang Z, Wang C (2020) Effect of phenanthrene on the biological characteristics of earthworm casts and their relationships with digestive and anti-oxidative systems. Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 193:110359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110359
Silva CL, Brennan N, Brouwer JM, Commandeur D, Verweij RA (2017) Comparative toxicity of imidacloprid and thiacloprid to different species of soil invertebrates. Ecotoxicol 26:555–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-017-1790-7
Singh NP, McCoy MT, Tice RR, Schneider EL (1988) A simple technique for quantitation of low levels of DNA damage in individual cells. Exp Cell Res 175:184–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4827(88)90265-0
Singh S, Singh J, Vig AP (2016) Earthworm as ecological engineers to change the physico-chemical properties of soil: soil versus vermicast. Ecol Eng 90:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.01.072
Singh S, Tiwari RK, Pandey RS (2018) Evaluation of acute toxicity of triazophos and deltamethrin and their inhibitory effect on AChE activity in Channa punctatus. Toxicol Rep 5:85–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2017.12.006
Singh S, Tiwari RK, Pandey RS (2020) An insight into the impact of triazophos and deltamethrin pesticides as individual and in combination on oxidative stress and histopathological alterations in Eudrilus eugeniae. Chem Ecol 36:155–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/02757540.2019.1699536
Song Y, Zhu LS, Wang J, Wang JH, Liu W, Xie H (2009) DNA damage and effects on antioxidative enzymes in earthworm (Eisenia foetida) induced by atrazine. Soil Biol Biochem 41:905–909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.09.009
Sorour J, Larink O (2001) Toxic effects of benomyl on the ultrastructure during spermatogenesis of the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 50:180–188. https://doi.org/10.1006/eesa.2001.2067
Spurgeon DJ, Keith AM, Schmidt O, Lammertsma DR, Faber JH (2013) Land-use and land-management change: relationships with earthworm and fungi communities and soil structural properties. BMC Ecol 13:46. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6785-13-46
Sun X, Zhou Q, Ren W, Li X, Ren L (2011) Spatial and temporal distribution of acetochlor in sediments and riparian soils of the Songhua River Basin in northeastern China. J Environ Sci 23:1684–1690. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1001-0742(10)60595-5
Suthar S (2014) Toxicity of methyl parathion on growth and reproduction of three ecologically different tropical earthworms. Int J Environ Sci Technol 11:191–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-012-0154-3
Tiwari RK, Singh S, Pandey RS, Sharma B (2016) Enzymes of earthworm as indicators of pesticide pollution in soil. Adv Enzyme Res 4:113. https://doi.org/10.4236/aer.2016.44011
Tiwari RK, Singh S, Pandey RS (2019) Assessment of acute toxicity and biochemical responses to chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin and their combination exposed earthworm, Eudrilus eugeniae. Toxicol Rep 6:288–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2019.03.007
Travlos IS, Gkotsi T, Roussis I, Kontopoulou CK, Kakabouki I, Bilalis DJ (2017) Effects of the herbicides benfluralin, metribuzin and propyzamide on the survival and weight of earthworms (Octodrilus complanatus). Plant Soil Environ 63:117–24. https://doi.org/10.17221/811/2016-pse
Uwizeyimana H, Wang M, Chen W (2017) Evaluation of combined noxious effects of siduron and cadmium on the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Environ Sci Poll Res 24:5349–5359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-8220-x
Valenzuela EF, Menezes HC, Cardeal ZL (2020) Passive and grab sampling methods to assess pesticide residues in water a review. Environ Chem Lett 18:1019–1048. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-00998-8
Van Gestel CA, Van Dis WA, Van Breemen EM, Sparenburg PM (1989) Development of a standardized reproduction toxicity test with the earthworm species Eisenia fetida andrei using copper, pentachlorophenol, and 2, 4-dichloroaniline. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 18:305–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-6513(89)90024-9
Velki M, Weltmeyer A, Seiler TB, Hollert H (2019) Acute toxicities and effects on multixenobiotic resistance activity of eight pesticides to the earthworm Eisenia andrei. Environ Sci Poll Res 26:4821–4832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3959-x
Vischetti C, Casucci C, De Bernardi A, Monaci E, Tiano L, Marcheggiani F, Ciani M, Comitini F, Marini E, Taskin E, Puglisi E (2020) Sub-lethal effects of pesticides on the DNA of soil organisms as early ecotoxicological biomarkers. Fronti Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.01892
Walker AN, Golden R, Horst MN (2010) Morphologic effects of in vivo acute exposure to the pesticide methoprene on the hepatopancreas of a non-target organism, Homarus americanus. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 8:1867–1874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2010.08.013
Wang Y, Cang T, Zhao X, Yu R, Chen L, Wu C, Wang Q (2012a) Comparative acute toxicity of twenty-four insecticides to earthworm, Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 79:122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.12.016
Wang JH, Zhu LS, Liu W, Wang J, Xie H (2012) Biochemical responses of earthworm (Eisenia foetida) to the pesticides chlorpyrifos and fenvalerate. Toxicol Mech Methods 22:236e241. https://doi.org/10.3109/15376516.2011.640718
Wang Y, Wu S, Chen L, Wu C, Yu R, Wang Q, Zhao X (2012c) Toxicity assessment of 45 pesticides to the epigeic earthworm Eisenia fetida. Chemosphere 88:484–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.02.086
Wang K, Qi S, Mu X, Chai T, Yang Y, Wang D, Li D, Che W, Wang C (2015) Evaluation of the toxicity, AChE activity and DNA damage caused by imidacloprid on earthworms, Eisenia fetida. Bullet Environ Contam Toxicol 95:475–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-015-1629-y
Wang J, Wang J, Wang G, Zhu L, Wang J (2016) DNA damage and oxidative stress induced by imidacloprid exposure in the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Chemosphere 144:510–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.09.004
Wang X, Zhu X, Peng Q, Wang Y, Ge J, Yang G, Wang X, Cai L, Shen W (2019) Multi-level ecotoxicological effects of imidacloprid on earthworm (Eisenia fetida). Chemosphere 219:923–932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.001
Wang H, Zhang X, Wang L, Zhu B, Guo W, Liu W, Wang J (2020) Biochemical responses and DNA damage induced by herbicide QYR301 in earthworm (Eisenia fetida). Chemosphere 244:125512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125512
World Health Organization (WHO) (1986) Metabolism and mode of action. In: Organophosphorus insecticides: a general introduction. Geneva. Pp. 39–48
Worldatlas (2018) https ://www.world atlas .com/artic les/top pesticide-consuming-countries-of-the-world .html
Wu R, Zhou T, Wang J, Wang J, Du Z, Li B, Juhasz A, Zhu L (2021) Oxidative stress and DNA damage induced by trifloxystrobin on earthworms (Eisenia fetida) in two soils. Sci Total Environ 797:149004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149004
Xiao N, Jing B, Ge F, Liu X (2006) The fate of herbicide acetochlor and its toxicity to Eisenia fetida under laboratory conditions. Chemosphere 62:1366–1373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.07.043
Yadav J, Gupta RK (2017) Dynamics of nutrient profile during vermicomposting. Ecol Environ Cons 23:516–521
Yadav JY, Singh DH, Yadav JA, Kumar DE (2017) Organophosphates and carbamates as inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase in Eisenia fetida. Pollut Res 36:277–281
Yang GL, Chen C, Wang YH, Peng Q, Zhao HY, Guo DM, Wang Q, Qian YZ (2017) Mixture toxicity of four commonly used pesticides at different effect levels to the epigeic earthworm, Eisenia fetida. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 142:29–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.03.037
Yang X, Li Y, Wang X (2020) Effects of ciprofloxacin exposure on the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Environ Poll 262:114287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114287
Yao X, Zhang F, Qiao Z, Yu H, Sun S, Li X, Zhang J, Jiang X (2020) Toxicity of thifluzamide in earthworm (Eisenia fetida). Ecotoxicol Environ Safe 188:109880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109880
Yasmin S, D’Souza D (2007) Effect of pesticides on the reproductive output of Eisenia fetida. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 79:529–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-007-9269-5
Yatoo AM, Ali MN, Baba ZA, Hassan B (2021) Sustainable management of diseases and pests in crops by vermicompost and vermicompost tea a review. Agron Sustain Develop 41:1–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-020-00657-w
Yatoo AM, Rasool S, Ali S, Majid S, Rehman MU, Ali MN, Eachkoti R, Rasool S, Rashid SM, Farooq S (2020) Vermicomposting: an eco-friendly approach for recycling/management of organic wastes. In: Bioremediation and Biotechnology, Springer, Cham pp 167–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35691-0_8
Yu Y, Li X, Yang G, Wang Y, Wang X, Cai L, Liu X (2019) Joint toxic effects of cadmium and four pesticides on the earthworm (Eisenia fetida). Chemosphere 227:489–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.04.064
Zang Y, Zhong Y, Luo Y, Kong ZM (2000) Genotoxicity of two novel pesticides for the earthworm, Eisenia fetida. Environ Poll 108:271–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0269-7491(99)00191-8
Zhang W, Jiang F, Ou J (2011) Global pesticide consumption and pollution: with China as a focus. Proc Int Acad Ecol Environ Sci 1:125
Zhang Q, Zhang B, Wang C (2014) Ecotoxicological effects on the earthworm Eisenia fetida following exposure to soil contaminated with imidacloprid. Environ Sci Poll Res 21:12345–12353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3178-z
Zhang C, Zhu L, Wang J, Wang J, Du Z, Li B, Zhou T, Cheng C, Wang Z (2018a) Evaluating subchronic toxicity of fluoxastrobin using earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Sci Total Environ 642:567–573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.091
Zhang Q, Li Z, Chang CH, Lou JL, Zhao MR, Lu C (2018b) Potential human exposures to neonicotinoid insecticides: a review. Environ Poll 236:71–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.101
Zhang X, Wang X, Liu Y, Fang K, Liu T (2020a) The toxic effects of sulfoxaflor induced in earthworms (Eisenia fetida) under effective concentrations. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:1740. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051740
Zhang R, Zhou Z, Zhu W (2020b) Evaluating the effects of the tebuconazole on the earthworm, Eisenia fetida by H-1 NMR-based untargeted metabolomics and mRNA assay. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 194:110370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110370
Zhang W, Xia X, Wang J, Zhu L, Wang J, Wang G, Chen Y, Kim YM (2021) Oxidative stress and genotoxicity of nitenpyram to earthworms (Eisenia foetida). Chemosphere 264:128493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128493
Zhou S, Duan C, Michelle WH, Yang F, Wang X (2011) Individual and combined toxic effects of cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos on earthworm. J Environ Sci 23:676–768. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1001-0742(10)60462-7
Zhou S, Duan C, Liu S, Yang F (2014) Effect of chlorpyrifos of a sublethal dose on enzyme activity of the antioxidant defense system of earthworms. Acta Pedol Sin 51:389–393
Zhu L, Li B, Wu R, Li W, Wang J, Wang J, Du Z, Juhasz A, Zhu L (2020) Acute toxicity, oxidative stress and DNA damage of chlorpyrifos to earthworms (Eisenia fetida): the difference between artificial and natural soils. Chemosphere 255:126982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126982
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their heartfelt gratitude to the Centre of Research for Development, University of Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, India, where the literature review was conducted and the article was prepared. The authors are also grateful to Dr. Tahir Ahmad Sheikh for confirming the identification of earthworms.
Funding
None.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AY: Conceptualization, Writing-Original draft, Writing-review & Editing. Md. N,. ZB: Supervision.: ZZ, TS, SA: Visualization Writing-review & Editing. SR, PG, MS, BH, BH: Review and Editing.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
Authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yatoo, A.M., Ali, M., Zaheen, Z. et al. Assessment of pesticide toxicity on earthworms using multiple biomarkers: a review. Environ Chem Lett 20, 2573–2596 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01386-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-022-01386-0